He lived 1578 to 1643 and described Moon illusion and afterimages.
He lived 1786 to 1889 and invented Chevreul's array of progressively darker gray strips, which showed edge-enhancement effects.
He lived 1861 to 1891, found tractus dorsolateralis or Lissauer's tract [1855], and invented model for visual recognition [1890]. Patients can fail to form associations between memories and perceptions or fail to form perceptions {mind-blindness} [1879].
He lived 1801 to 1887. Sensation intensity is proportional to logarithm of stimulus {Weber-Fechner law, Fechner} {Weber's law, Fechner}. Logarithmic scale measures sensation intensity: S = k * log(I) + A, where S = sensation, k = relative-difference ratio, I = intensity, and A = absolute threshold. The law applies if sensations have categories {category scaling}. To detect just noticeable difference in sensation at higher intensities, stimulus intensity must increase in geometrical proportion. Sense qualities and psychological functions relate to stimuli {psychophysics, Fechner}.
Aesthetics
Method of paired comparisons can judge aesthetic preferences.
He lived 1832 to 1920 and founded experimental and physiological psychology. He studied attention, apperception, sense processes, and reaction times. He trained himself in introspection [Wundt, 1873]. Melancholic and choleric emotional types of Galen have strong emotional reactions, but phlegmatic and sanguine emotional types do not.
Epistemology
Ideas are mental processes, not objects. Mind combines units to make objects and perceptions {structuralism, Wundt}.
He lived 1839 to 1900 used the term mind-blindness [1878] and found optic chiasm [1879].
Visual afterimage has larger size if is thought to be far away and smaller size if it is thought to be nearby, so afterimage apparent size directly relates to apparent distance {Emmert's law, Emmert}.
Later, society for psychical research began in USA.
He lived 1848 to 1936 and studied tone and music psychology {act psychology, Stumpf} at School of Graz. He studied experimental phenomenology [Stumpf, 1890].
He lived 1860 to 1944, experimentally tried hashish, and measured reaction times and small perception differences [1902].
He lived 1842 to 1921 and studied perception and behavior physiology.
He lived 1857 to 1916 and invented illusion {Müller-Lyer illusion, Muller-Lyer} [1889]. Mind uses both figure and ground to perceive object {confluxion principle} {principle of confluxion}.
He lived 1859 to 1933. Shape or melody directly relates to sense-stimulation pattern, but perception infers and selects figure {gestalt, Ehrenfels} from ground. Shape or object has constancies and change directions, and these are the most-basic gestalt properties.
He lived 1865 to 1957. Distorting lenses make background appear to move at first, but soon users learn and background becomes stationary [1896 to 1897].
He lived 1863 to 1944 and invented duck-rabbit illusion [1899], which relates to aspect perception using concepts.
He lived 1869 to 1962, measured individual differences, and invented objective emotional-stability tests.
He lived 1858 to 1927. If people view pendulums with sunglasses over one eye and nothing over other eye, pendulums appear to move in elliptical paths, with depth {Pulfrich's pendulum} {Pulfrich stereophenomenon} [1921]. Perhaps, sunglass delays signal transmission from retina to brain {delay line explanation}, eye sees sunglass-filtered pendulum at previous position compared to uncovered eye, and different positions cause stereoscopic disparity and appearance of depth.
Actually, eye adaptation to lower illumination causes delay. Depth effect also happens with stroboscopically lit objects and in television-set "snow".
He lived 1884 to 1953 and studied touch and color vision.
He lived 1880 to 1943, founded Gestalt psychology, and studied apparent visual motion.
He lived 1864 to 1922. He postulated that two forms of cutaneous sensation exist, broad {protopathic sensation} and narrow {epicritic sensation}. However, this theory is false. Many dreams are fantasy attempts to resolve current emotional problems.
He lived 1886 to 1951 and studied figure and ground and vase-profile illusion [1915].
He lived 1886 to 1941 and helped found Gestalt psychology.
He lived 1887 to 1967 and co-founded Gestalt School. Insight, not trial and error, solves problems that involve thought or tool use. Insight involves perception rearrangement {restructuring}, to reveal previously hidden or unnoticed features.
He lived 1894 to 1984 and studied size and brightness constancies. Perceived object property, such as size, shape, or brightness, is intermediate between stimulus pattern property in peripheral senses and object property {compromise element} {element of compromise} [1972]. Learning does not affect element of compromise. Element of compromise has individual differences.
He lived 1868 to 1935. Some notes and chords are musical structural bases {Schenkerian analysis}. Other notes and chords are elaboration and ornamentation patterns.
At Duke University, he was the father of parapsychology, did card guessing, and studied telepathy, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis {ESP experiment} [Rhine, 1934] [Rhine, 1947]. All his research is suspect, because his experimenters' suggestions caused positive results.
He lived 1903 to 1955 and studied perception.
He lived 1873 to 1954. Normal perception uses key features, such as recognizing meaningful facial expressions and other complex perceptions in simple drawings [1935].
He lived 1903 to 1940 and studied induced motion and studied productive thinking.
He lived 1906 to 1973.
Cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, differences, and ratios measure stimuli or sensations {magnitude estimation, Stevens}. Neural signal discreteness {neural quantum theory} limits sense-discrimination sensitivity.
Sensation magnitudes S are directly proportional to physical-stimuli magnitudes I, raised to power b [1962] {Stevens' power law}: S = a*I^b, where a is constant for sense. Sound has the power 0.3, so loudness is not high as physical noise {sone scale} [1936]. Brightness has power 0.3, so sensation intensity is not as high as physical intensity. Lengths have power 1, and sensation and intensity match. Pain has power 3, so pain is more intense than the physical stimuli.
He lived 1906 to 2005, discovered LSD-25 [1938], and showed that related alkaloids {lysergic acid amide} {lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide} are naturally in plants [1959].
He lived 1914 to 1945 and studied eye adaptations to illumination changes.
Retina has adaptations to both light and dark. Adaptation adjusts illumination range expected, to make eye most efficient at detecting signals in that range. Adaptation is about expectations and is predictive, just as is all thinking. Brain models external reality and can make successful predictions, just as machines can predict. Retina has visual afterimages.
Mental processes build and use representations using rules.
He lived 1923 to 1969 and studied vision and neurons.
He lived 1880 to 1955, studied education, and invented distorting rooms {Ames room} [1946].
He invented stereochemical theory of odor [1946].
He lived 1903 to 1973 and studied interactions between classical and instrumental conditioning. He suggested that one cell (grandmother cell) can recognize a perception or store an object concept [Konorski, 1967].
He lived 1913 to 1993. He invented and studied figures that had illusory contours.
He lived 1904 to 1979. He studied visual shape and motion perception in natural conditions, when observer moved freely while objects were still, or objects moved while observer was still {visual flow, Gibson}.
Higher-order object features can be invariant during motion or rotation. Perception involves acquiring such information from ambient sensations. Sense qualities provide motion lines {flow line} and texture gradients {ecological optics}. People seem to perceive such features without visual computation.
People can adapt to distorting lenses but slightly overadapt.
He lived 1922 to 1976.
Enjoyable feelings follow electrically stimulating septal region, lateral hypothalamus, and other limbic-system parts used for reward and motivation {pleasure center} {self-stimulation} [1953: with Peter Milner]. Sensory neocortex stimulation never causes such enjoyable feelings. Dopamines affect limbic-system septal region. Hippocampus and amygdala stimulation can cause unpleasant feelings.
He studied eye-hand coordination. Visual depth perception requires coordinated self-movement, with Alan Hein. Self-produced movements result in sensory stimulation {reafference}. Visual motor skills require reafference, but reflexes do not. Sensory stimulation is independent of self-produced movements {exafference}.
He invented letter-recognition models {Pandemonium model}. Lowest level recognized letter features, such as straight and curved line segments at different orientations. Middle level suggested letters based on feature combinations. Highest level chose letter based on weights from middle-level letters.
He lived 1916 to 1977 and studied wartime brain-wound psychological effects. He investigated social networks [1967] and found how many links {six degrees of separation} can connect all population members.
He lived 1919 to ?. Algorithms can first test, then operate, then test, and then exit {test-operate-test-exit} {TOTE unit} [1960: with Miller and Galanter]. Units are in networks. He discussed dissipative structures in neurons and holonomic theory. Cortical dendrites hold wave interference patterns, which activate by partial input [Pribram, 1991].
He lived 1928 to 2003. Picture with random, identical, featureless dots {random-dot stereogram} {random dot stereogram} (RDS) [1971] can make perceivers see object surface lying in front of background surface or see three-dimensional object {stereopsis, Julesz}. RDS has no monocular depth cues, so only cyclopean stimuli signal depth. Object and background have same hue and brightness. Stereoscopic fusion and depth do not need recognizable objects or line features.
If dots fall randomly on surfaces with different-color regions, dots fall on colors with specific frequencies {first-order statistic} [1962]. Randomly thrown needles fall on color combinations with specific frequencies {second-order statistic}. Randomly thrown triangles have specific frequencies with which the three vertices fall on color combinations {third-order statistic}. Texture discrimination processes, which happen before attention processes, use first-order and second-order statistics but not third-order statistics. Similar textures have identical second-order and first-order statistics. Second-order texture classes are many.
He lived 1905 to 1998 and studied color vision.
He lived 1910 to ? and studied mind drugs.
He developed stereochemical theory of smell.
He lived 1920 to 1996 and used drugs for freedom.
He developed the gate control theory of pain [1965], with Patrick Wall. He said people have body image {phylomatrix} {body-schema}.
He lived 1923 to ?. Perceptions are good guesses about what physical world is like.
He invented Cornsweet-Craik illusion.
He studied deaf people.
Perception can happen without consciousness.
He lived 1926 to 1984 and traced perceptual deficits to specific brain lesions. Wernicke's areas on right and left sides differ.
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He studied imagery.
He studied color vision.
He lived 1945 to 1980 and modeled cerebellum function. He emphasized need to study brain's task, from requirements, to functions, to implementation. He developed theory of how visual system recognizes lines and edges, using neurophysiology and psychology. Objects have different representations at different stages, to facilitate recognition [Marr, 1982].
He studied imagery.
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He studied methods for vision in robots. He proposed axioms for consciousness and tests for consciousness, with Barry Dunmall.
He studied perception.
Objects have spatiotemporal continuity, on which perception always relies to define objects.
He said perceptions have geon units and invented a model {recognition-by-components, Biederman}.
He studied disparity detectors [Blakemore and Greenfield, 1987].
He studied mental representations [Papineau, 2006].
Representational systems can focus attention on environment or self regions or intervals. They can extract information from environment, represent information accurately to useful detail, and use information for function. These representational abilities can evolve from simpler state. Representation does not indicate anything about representational system and cannot represent itself.
Minimum representational system has more than one information channel, whose inputs converge, and has way to use or store converged output.
However, one channel can contain as much information as two channels, if it has enough capacity. Serial-processing algorithm can be equivalent to parallel-processing algorithm. Input can be equivalent to converged inputs. Relying only on representational-system physical characteristics cannot explain representation, because representation is informational, rather than physical.
She lived 1956 to ?.
He studied synesthesia, which relates to limbic system.
He studied synesthesia.
Imagine a planet {Black Planet} that one cannot see or know until one puts on a spacesuit with correct sensors that transduce physical energies into what one can sense. Black Planet is Earth, and transducer and human senses.
He studied sense substitution. Tongue arrays can replace vestibular system. He invented Tactile Vision Substitution System [Bach-y-Rita and González, 2002].
He found macrocolumns, with Lorente de No.
He developed the Intelligent Distribution Agent (IDA) application. IDA performs Global-Workspace-Theory top-level functions and has multiple-threaded independent agents {codelet}. IDA knows skills of Navy personnel and what they like to do after current tour ends. It also knows Navy policies and what jobs Navy needs to fill [Franklin, 1998].
He developed bottom-up system to try to build perception, imagery, inner speech, pain and pleasure, and emotions from artificial neurons, using no algorithms, but only distributed signals, cross-links, analysis, and reports. Process becomes conscious when it is sufficiently complex {emergence, Haikonen}. System uses no numbers, only meanings.
He developed robots with internal models and control systems, with Rod Goodman. Perhaps, sufficiently complex and intelligent control systems can have consciousness emerge {emergence, Holland}.
Virtual machines can model consciousness-like information processing. Models can define consciousness and mind as architectures. Information processing shows that qualia-concepts depend on architecture. Architecture structures qualia themselves.
People speak to themselves voice {inner voice} to express their thoughts, and this information processing structure is useful.
They studied psychology and perception biology.
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