Psychology includes attitudes, cognition, attention, learning, memory, perception, child psychology, personality, and mental illness.
He lived 1884 to 1955 and studied attention.
She invented an attention theory {feature integration theory, Treisman}. Mind first processes basic visual features preattentively and automatically and then uses attention to associate features with objects and find higher-level properties.
He studied supervisory attentional system. He invented model with functional models, contention scheduler, supervisory system, language system, and episodic memory [Shallice, 1988].
He lived 1630 to 1693. Conversation is part of good manners.
He lived 1824 to 1903 and developed a new psychology {Folk Psychology, Lazarus} {Comparative Psychology, Lazarus} [1854: with Heymann Steinthal].
He lived 1823 to 1899 and developed new psychology {Folk Psychology, Steinthal} {Comparative Psychology, Steinthal} [1854], with Lazarus.
He lived 1843 to 1925 and wrote psychology textbook.
He lived 1852 to 1936 and studied trial-and-error learning. He emphasized carefully observing behavior in natural settings where conditions systematically vary. He advocated finding minimal behavior causes {law of parsimony} {Morgan's canon} [1894], using higher concepts only if necessary. Evolution makes higher systems by emergence from lower ones.
He lived 1862 to 1917 and was at Würzburg School of experimental psychology in Bavaria.
Before performing tasks, people prepare for doing any task, prepare for doing particular task, actively recall needed information and possible responses, and select from among possible associations and responses.
Mental states such as confidence or doubt have no image, representation, or object {imageless thought, Külpe} and cannot be sensations, images, volitions, or feelings {denkpsychologie} {thought psychology}.
He lived 1853 to 1931 and discovered prisoners who imitated psychotic behavior {Ganser syndrome} [1897 to 1898].
He lived 1851 to 1914. People can have a feeling of belonging to, and associating with, something else {einfuhlung} {empathy, aesthetics} [1897]. Empathy explains aesthetics.
Mind performs functions {Functionalism} and adapts behavior to environment, to meet body needs.
He lived 1844 to 1924 and studied many children.
He lived 1881 to 1964, founded French experimental psychology, and studied sleep. He claimed to find hypnotoxin or sleep-promoting substance [1907, with Rene Legendre], in cerebrospinal fluid.
He lived 1873 to 1946 and studied work habits.
He lived 1888 to 1974. Will and self connect {psychosynthesis}, because self acts through will in all sensations, emotions, desires, imaginings, thoughts, and intuitions [1910].
He lived 1878 to 1958 and founded behaviorism. He emphasized being objective and working only with observables. He studied reinforcement timing in instrumental learning, conditioned responses, and forming associations. Associations can only form between stimulus and response, not between stimuli. All behaviors depend on reflexes. All behavior and thought is stimulus-response, though people cannot observe mental stimuli and responses. Conditioning determines human behavior, so people learn almost all behaviors. Previous-behavior recency and frequency determine subsequent behavior. The goal of psychology is behavior prediction and control.
Classical conditioning can change human emotions.
He lived 1873 to 1946 and was behaviorist.
He lived 1880 to 1961 and studied child development using movie cameras [1926].
He lived 1886 to 1959 and developed a behavioral learning theory that did not rely on reflexes. He studied hypothesis formation and reward expectance in animal learning. He studied spatial orientation and cognitive maps [1950]. He studied latent learning and sign-gestalt theory [Tolman, 1935].
He lived 1897 to 1979 and discovered Klüver-Bucy syndrome, with Paul Bucy.
He lived 1884 to 1952, was behaviorist {neobehaviorism}, studied hypnosis, and measured attitudes. He studied behavior segments, continuity learning theory, drive reduction, primary needs, and secondary needs [Hull, 1943].
He lived 1890 to 1947. Internal and external stimuli cause individual differences {field theory}. Incentives come from outside and goals from inside. Rewards come from outside and success from inside.
He lived 1904 to 1990. He studied operant conditioning or instrumental responses as explanations for internal and external behavior. Most behaviors involve voluntary movements {operant conditioning, Skinner}, rather than reflexes {classical conditioning, Skinner}. Current behavior depends on rewards or punishments experienced after previous behavior. Rewards can be food or pleasure {positive reinforcement, Skinner} or can be punishment reduction {negative reinforcement, Skinner}. Punishment can decrease behavior. Low reward can decrease behavior {extinction, Skinner}. People have private stimuli and responses. People learn to be self-aware by verbal reports. Only stimulus-response conditioning frequencies determine behavior {radical behaviorism}.
Experimental chambers {Skinner box} allow stimulus delivery and response measurement. Skinner boxes can be enclosed cribs {air-crib} for human infants.
He lived 1903 to 1990 and studied communal education.
He lived 1896 to 1978 and studied creativity and development.
He lived 1905 to 1981 and studied monkey play and learning set formation [Harlow and Harlow, 1949].
He lived 1907 to 1996 and studied conformity to others' opinions. Conformity happens even in line-length perception.
He lived 1886 to 1959 and was behaviorist. Mind automatically joins objects and events perceived or performed simultaneously {contiguity theory, Guthrie}. S-R learning can happen in one trial {one-trial learning}.
He lived 1884 to 1939, was psychoanalyst, and wrote about ethics.
He lived 1908 to 1970. People's needs form hierarchy {need hierarchy}.
He lived 1916 to 2001 and invented administration systems theory {decision theory, Simon}, which examines human problem-solving difficulties, cognitive limits on rationality, and perceptual limits on decision making. Good chess players can remember real chess positions better but not random ones better.
He lived 1927 to 1992.
He lived 1925 to 1997 and studied biofeedback and children raised by animals.
He lived 1908 to 1980 and studied territoriality and aggression.
He lived 1908 to ?.
Covert, unobservable behaviors, such as thoughts, images, and other mental events, are similar to overt or operant behavior {coverant behavior} [1965].
Processes and concepts used for spatial location and motion can extend to represent other ideas, objects, and relations, such as possession {thematic relations hypothesis}.
He lived 1934 to 2005.
She lived 1926 to 2004 and studied dying.
He lived 1927 to ?. If conditional stimulus pairs with reinforcer and then second stimulus pairs with first stimulus and reinforcer, animals do not respond to only second stimulus {blocking effect, Kamin} [1969]. Animals seem to assume minimum sufficient causation.
He lived 1928 to ? and studied sleep and dreams.
He lived 1904 to 1980 and studied mind in environment.
He lived 1926 to ?. Computation uses separate initial conditions and motion equations, but these are not separate in nature. Organisms have measurement methods and can interact with environment, allowing them to attach meaning to stimuli {semantic closure}.
Dopamine prediction neurons fire before rewards.
He lived 1933 to 1984 and studied obedience to authority. People sent commands to shock people when directed to do by authority.
He studied near-death experiences.
He studied EEG when people randomly chose to flex finger, with L. Deecke and B. Grötzinger. EEGs show change one second before they flex. If people reacted to light signal, EEG change was 0.2 second afterward.
He studied brain timing.
He studied mind in environment.
Language is about situations and about relations among communicators {situation semantics, Barwise}.
He studied language origins.
He writes popular science.
She studied ape intelligence and natural language. The bonobo Kanzi used and understood 150 words, typically to express desires or refer to present objects. Learning is instrumental association but is not necessarily referential, with no grammar.
Robots can have rules that are in separate modules that compete by inhibiting each other {subsumption architecture}. The outside world is the only model needed. The robot Cog goes directly from multisensory perception to action, without memory or language. The robot Genghis detects heat and moves toward or away.
People can easily detect rule breaking in social interactions.
He studied about self.
Language replaced grooming in larger social groups.
Chimpanzees have no sense of self and no awareness of mental states, though they can inspect their bodies using mirrors.
Brain and language allow symbolic communication {symbolic species}.
He studied language.
Tamarin monkeys are curious about their bodies and movements that they see in mirrors, unlike cats and dogs. Monkeys can have sense of self.
Kismet is robot head whose parts can move like human head parts. If it is too close to see, it cranes back, and if it is too far, it cranes forward. It checks for movement, skin color, and saturated colors and looks in weighted direction. State depends on happiness, stimulation, and willingness for new stimuli. State affects where it looks. It checks pitch for patterns of approving, disapproving, drawing attention, and soothing, but it has no language ability. It can make sounds in pitch patterns. It can move eyebrows, lips, and ears to reflect happiness, stimulation, and willingness for new stimuli.
He lived 1834 to 1900 and was materialist. Only humans can understand and use number system. Ability to use number system and abstract space properties is innate. Emotion is bodily changes evoked by perceiving external stimuli.
He lived 1869 to 1949 and founded Chicago functionalist school {functionalism, Angell}. He emphasized physiological processes underlying cognition and behavior. Reaction times depend on both sense and muscle reaction times. Practicing reduces individual reaction-time differences.
He lived 1871 to 1938. People have purposes and goals that explain thoughts and actions. Emotion happens after thwarted drives. He studied explicit recognition and implicit recognition [McDougall, 1924].
He lived 1896 to 1980 and was constructivist. He studied children's cognitive development and developed cognition tests. He asked children to describe what mountains look like if they are at different locations {mountain test}. He asked what happens to liquid slopes in glass jars as they tilt. He asked what happens to liquid levels if poured into various-diameter jars {conservation test}. He wanted to make epistemology experimental science and so unify biology and logic.
Knowledge is symbolic structure. Existing knowledge structures modify perceptual input {assimilation, Piaget} and change to adapt to perceptual input {accommodation, Piaget}. Mind has cognitive processes. Self-regulating processes compare thesis to anti-thesis and synthesize contradictories {constructivism, Piaget} {dialectical constructivism}, by examining context and premises at each step. Psychological development is not only emergence of innate properties through biological maturation but also requires dialectical constructivism, as personal experience conflicts with its anti-thesis. Psychological development thus depends on active exploration to gain experiences.
In early childhood, experience involves only behaviors. Later, thought can reconstruct behavior. By middle childhood, knowledge is about objects. In early adolescence, verbal knowledge, formal reasoning, and deductive thinking develop.
"Intelligence is what you use when you do not know what to do."
Schemas exist in long-term memory and interact with other schemas {Genevan model} {Piagetian model}. Memory strength depends on schema integration. Memory has three factors: external object or fact, unconscious schema sets {memory significate}, and conscious representations {signifier}. Encoding and recall make memory significate.
He lived 1896 to 1934 and studied significative behavior. Culture, including language, changes consciousness structure. Thought and speech are first independent. Speech is for directly communicating needs. Then children imitate formal culture properties, such as language syntax. Then they internalize them, so they can plan and think about themselves as subjects and objects [Vygotsky, 1930]. People learn best when material is only slightly above their current knowledge {zone of proximal development}.
He lived 1863 to 1945, studied cognition principles, invented tetrad equation, and developed a two-factor intelligence theory. Perhaps, intelligence has general factor {mental energy}, which allows good performance on all mental tests {general ability}. General factor results from relations among primary intelligence factors.
He lived 1881 to 1965. Interactions among objects moving in space and time reveal causality. Experience of causality depends on actual object movements and the idea that moving objects can cause other objects to move {launching} {entraining}.
He lived 1923 to ?, studied cognitive styles, and developed inkblot tests {Holtzman Inkblot Technique} [1956].
He lived 1915 to ? and studied thinking strategies, child development, and cultural psychology.
Play has rules, and people distinguish it from reality. Creativity requires playing. For solving problems, playing with needed materials is as effective as seeing complete solution.
Memories can have no records but just be changes in whole organism skills and rules. Memories can be records about people, places, times, and events.
He lived 1919 to 1989. Inconsistencies in themselves or environment {cognitive dissonance, Festinger} can cause tension. People try to reduce cognitive dissonance.
He studied behavior and cognition.
He lived 1939 to ? and developed interpreter theory.
Chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos, and humans over two years old can use their reflections in mirrors to perceive their bodies and direct actions. They can recognize themselves and have sense of self. Gorillas, monkeys, and children under two do not.
He studied pattern recognition.
He lived 1948 to ? and invented the priority principle [Wegner, 2002].
He studied brain anatomy.
He studied animals.
He studied pattern recognition.
He studied mental models.
He studied mental models.
He studied learning, memory, and cognition.
He lived 1937 to ?.
He studied language and cognition relative to genetics and environment.
He studied mind in animals.
Computation has input data, data transformations, and output {solution, Hopfield}. Brain uses algorithms to transform sense input and brain memories into motor output. Connected, non-linear, graded-response units can model brain representations, transformations, and outputs. Models use continuous analog dynamic functions, which can optimize.
He lived 1946 to ?.
She studied development.
He studied cognition.
Unconscious interactions {psychodynamics} among motives, to achieve wishes, avoid potential threats, and use control processes, provide basis for personality and personality disorders. Control processes include defenses to prevent threats.
Brain and culture allow cognition.
Algorithms cannot provide new information.
Nature does not use computations or simulations.
He studied brain anatomy.
She studied gender brain differences.
Amygdala quickly receives input from thalamus and gives emotional responses. Amygdala more slowly receives from cortex, which analyzes stimulus.
She studied brain evolution.
He studied brain anatomy.
Chimpanzees do not imitate but learn cultural traits by being in same situation.
He invented a consciousness model with conscious-content recursion levels (Levels of Consciousness model), from perception, to self-perception, to other minds, and to social competence.
He studied mind and brain.
He lived 1856 to 1939. He invented a psychodynamic topographic mental model [1900], with rational conscious awareness, rational preconscious memories, and irrational unconscious desires. Later [1926 to 1933], he invented a psychodynamic structural model, with id ("it" in German), ego ("I" in German), and superego ("above-me" in German).
Dreams have meaning, can be about infantile wishes and thoughts, and have understandable symbols. Dream has images {manifest dream content}. Dreams have underlying ideas {latent dream content}, which are wishes, memories, and fantasies about emotional reactions that happened in early infancy. Latent content transforms into manifest content by condensation, displacement, dramatization, and representation, followed by secondary elaboration or revision {dream work}. Dream work tries to evade latent-content censorship by choosing acceptable manifest content. Dream transforms many or separated ideas into one image {condensation, dream}. Dream can attribute emotional significance to unimportant object {displacement, dream}. Dream can transpose thought into imagery. Dream can represent abstract ideas metaphorically by concrete images {representation, dream}. Dreams further distort or elaborate after waking {secondary elaboration}. Symbolic representations {primal symbolism} can be consistent in human dreams. Such symbols always have censored meaning, independent of manifest content, for example, symbols for male and female genitalia. Repetitive dreams reenact traumatic episode in recent experience.
In diagnosing hysteria, he used free association to reveal unconscious desires and used proper interpretation to find hysteria causes. Neurosis can result as people actively try not to remember painful, distressing, or stressful events or try to repress desires, typically sexual desires {libido, Freud}, and become unconscious of their motivations {repression, Freud}. Desires begin in infantile sexual molestation {seduction theory}, incestual feelings, or sexual desire {polymorphous perversity}.
However, many supposed experiences are imaginary fantasies that started in early years, even in infancy.
Morals block instinctual motivations, causing conflict, which causes repression of motive into unconscious. Mind can repress memories, fantasies, and thoughts associated with painful, embarrassing, or anxious emotions. Mind breaks links between ideas and emotions, but mind cannot repress emotions, which build up unless released. From fear of punishment, drives cause anxiety. Repression causes desires to express in unusual or pathological ways. Repression of bad memories becomes available after age five.
Repression causes amnesia about childhood.
In neuroses, instinctual energy expresses itself in hysteria. If people can perceive what the ways actually mean, using analysis supplied by trained person, pathology can stop {psychoanalysis, Freud}. Revealing underlying emotion and drive can treat hysteria {abreaction, Freud}. He treated hysteria using hypnosis. Hypnosis can reenact experiences that cause hysteria, to express emotions freely {catharsis, emotion}. In psychoanalysis, hypnosis involves identification.
Humor is mixture of incongruity, relief, and conflict theories [1905].
Sexual development starts in infancy with oral phase, then anal phase, and then sexual phase. Development can stop at any stage. Young children love opposite-sex parent and hate same-sex parent {Oedipus complex, Freud}. Child development can stop if rivalry with same-sex parent does not resolve through identification with parent. Child development can stop if sexual feelings for opposite-sex parent do not transfer to sexual partner outside family. Relationship between mother and child before this development stage affects oedipal impulses.
People start with unconscious instinctual energy {id}, for needs, drives, impulses, and emotions, which uses no logic, ignores external reality, and depends on the pleasure principle. They develop rational conscious mental structures and processes {ego, Freud}, which reject id, from id and adapt to maximize pleasure and minimize unpleasant. They consciously learn morality, social values, and unconscious identification with parents and their values, which cause conscience, shame, guilt, and internal standard that regulates moral conduct {super-ego} {ego-ideal}, which represses bad thoughts and gets energy from id. Superego is part of ego and develops before age five or six {oedipal period}. Judgments and prohibitions internalize {introjection, Freud} in early childhood, before child is able to question them. Feelings of hostility towards either or both parents neutralize. Conscience originates in identifying with parents and repudiating childhood. Later, teachers, admired friends, and social and moral education influence superego. Successful personality development {ego strength} depends on defenses against instinctual drives and on adaptations to social situations. People can learn to accept society external authority more than their internal drives and values {adaptation, society}.
Unconscious mind contains repressed fantasies, memories, and thoughts, which can be self-destructive. Unconscious impulses {death-wish} can wish to end individual existence.
People have instinctual sexual-drive libido. Sexual energy builds up in body with unmet biological needs {cathexis}. Pleasure results when biological-need gratification discharges stored energy {pleasure principle}. Frustrating gratification builds stored energy {hypercathexis} and causes unpleasure. Failure to protect peripheral receptors from excessive or prolonged stimulation can cause unpleasure. Libido can channel into socially acceptable behavior {sublimation, desire}.
Theology
Eros is life instincts of sex libido, hunger, and thirst. Thanatos is death instincts of aggression, self-destruction, and sadism. Totems represent father, in oedipal conflict. Taboos represent, at first, renunciating incest. Religion involves love and fear of God. God is like father to religious believers, who are like his children. People wish this state to be true and so have illusion.
He lived 1867 to 1927, studied sensation and attention, and trained in introspection. He invented Titchener-circles illusion. He tried to catalog all mental elements, to find consciousness structure. Mind combines units to make objects and perceptions {structuralism, Titchener}.
He lived 1875 to 1961, founded a psychoanalysis variant {analytic psychology}, and studied psychoanalysis, symbols, myth, and cognitive styles.
People have effects {personality complex} that make a personality type. Personality types are meditative, inhibited, and withdrawn {introversion, Jung}; outgoing, active, and lively {extroversion, Jung}; or mixture {ambiversion, Jung}. Personality types depend on two opposites: feeling compared to thinking and sensation compared to intuition.
People develop in historical and cultural context, which gives life meaning, dignity, and purpose. People know unconsciousness culture, which has central objects {archetype, culture}. People also have primal symbols, which are innate and independent of history and culture. Dreams and visions include archetypes and symbols with emotional content, which all people share and which indicate destiny.
People can undergo crisis in middle life and need to achieve mental integration {individuation, Jung}.
Aesthetics
Spontaneous emergence of archetypal forms shows that people have innate symbols universally accepted as beautiful. Aesthetic sensibility developed over millions of years, as people learned to make and use tools and to undertake cooperative projects.
He lived 1866 to 1934 and studied unconscious self.
He lived 1886 to 1968, reviewed sensation and perception, and studied consciousness physical dimensions.
He lived 1901 to 1981 and interpreted Freud by comparing unconscious to language structures. Spoken language creates person.
He lived 1919 to ?. Reticular formation can be conscious. Homunculus can be new substance. It can need previous homunculi to know later ones.
He studied backward referral in time, Libet's delay, neuronal adequacy, readiness potential, and time-on theory [Libet, 1993]. Neural events can make experiences have unity {conscious mental field} (CMF). CMF can affect neurons and allows subjective experience.
He lived 1913 to ? and studied split brain. Brains are neural-network collections. They regulate each other. Consciousness emerges from activities in neural networks, and consciousness regulates networks.
He lived 1925 to 1998 and talked about peyote and consciousness.
He lived 1927 to ? and studied autonoetic consciousness and noetic consciousness [Tulving, 1983].
Consciousness is like computer operating system.
He lived 1920 to 1997. Consciousness arose when brain hemispheres acquired different specialized functions and unified them. Even at Homer's time, mind was not aware of itself. People seem not to have will or mind. They acted based on thoughts or impulses seemingly from separate places, which they attributed to gods. Left and right hemispheres were separate. As left hemisphere specialized for language, it allowed introspection, control, and integration.
Brain has many modules that act together.
He studied developmental selection, dynamic core, experiential selection, neural Darwinism, and neuronal-group selection [Edelman, 2003].
Mental events are recursive self-representational loops {strange loop}. The physical basis of loops is the molecular-behavioral loop. Consciousness is higher-order thoughts or reports accompanying unconscious mental states, so brain can monitor itself {higher-order thought, Hofstadter}. This control system allows recursion through self-representations. Mental states have different levels.
Brain has complex patterns, some of which are self-referentional. Lower animals, mammals, primates, children, adults, brain-damaged adults, and senescent people have no, some, half, medium, or high self-reference. Also, self-reference can have one, some, many, or infinite numbers of levels. People can nest things to infinite self-reference. Brain complex patterns are entirely physical at microscopic levels but have descriptions, and causes and effects, that use intentions at higher levels. Self-reference threatens paradox, runaway feedback, inconsistency, and incompleteness.
Strange loops feed back, cross levels, and go back to previous loop stages.
By the theory of types, a set cannot contain itself and a proposition cannot refer to itself.
A true proposition has a proof, which makes it true. A false proposition has no proof, showing it is false. False propositions lead to contradictions.
A different integer can represent each symbol. The sequence of primes can represent each position in a string. The prime raised to the integer represents the symbol at the position. For example, if symbol = is at position 1 and integer 5 represents symbol =, 2^5 = 32 represents the string "=". For more than one position, multiply the primes raised to powers. For example, if integer 2 represents symbol 4, the string "= 4" can be 2^5 * 3^2 = 288. In reverse, knowing the number 288 (Gödel number) and factoring into primes gives the symbol string. Formulas and Gödel numbers have one-to-one mapping and so are analogous. Their meanings are the same, but the concepts differ. Natural numbers can represent any pattern, have unlimited expressivity, and are like universal language.
Formal systems cannot prove that a Gödel number is the number of a true formula.
Symbol strings can represent propositions and inference rules, or not. Proofs derive propositions from previous propositions using rules of inference, and arithmetic calculations on proposition and rule Gödel numbers are equivalent to proofs. Proofs have Gödel numbers.
Some proposition Gödel numbers are in a system, as valid formulas, and the rest are out. Valid formulas come recursively from earlier valid formulas and must get larger. Some proposition Gödel numbers are valid formulas and provable. Provable formulas come recursively from earlier valid formulas and can be smaller or larger.
By describing Gödel numbers using their computation methods, formulas can contain their Gödel numbers. Proposition subjects and verb phrases have smaller Gödel numbers than whole propositions. Propositions can have verb phrases as subjects. Propositions about themselves are not provable.
In formal systems, proofs always find true propositions (consistency). If propositions about themselves were provable, formal systems find that the statement "propositions about themselves are not provable" is false. This is inconsistent.
Formal systems can prove all true propositions (completeness). If propositions about themselves are not provable, formal systems cannot find the true statement "propositions about themselves are not provable". This is incomplete.
I is a symbol that perception sometimes triggers in brains. I becomes larger over development, with more perceptions, results of actions, memories, beliefs, goals, feelings, and imaginings. Brain has structures larger than molecules and neurons and even neuron assemblies and brain regions. Such structures correspond with objects and events in the physical world and so are analogies.
Brains have many symbols and can make symbol patterns. Some brains can make symbol patterns that refer to symbol patterns. Symbol patterns can communicate.
Universal Turing machines can read and write descriptions of themselves (and so any machine).
He studied forgetting and learning transfer.
Consciousness contents are either sensory or propositional. Sensory content is mental image or actual object. Propositional content is statement. Content is what people are aware of, rather than conscious state itself.
Perhaps, minds cannot understand or explain consciousness {mysterianism, McGinn}. People cannot perceive or conceive how brain can make consciousness. Thinking is always spatial but consciousness is non-spatial. People can only understand something if it has simpler parts, parts have relations and combine in specific ways, and combinations let properties emerge {Combinatorial Atomism with Lawlike Mappings} (CALM). Introspection is knowledge by acquaintance and needs no concepts or thinking. Introspection shows that consciousness is not spatial.
Perhaps, before universe origin, everything had no matter, mass, size, or shape. Perhaps, consciousness is about non-spatial-property worlds. Complex brains somehow enable recreating that reality.
Philosophical problems have four answer types: deflationary reductionism, irreducibility, magical, eliminativism (DIME).
He studied imagery.
He studied information structure and intermediate-level theory of consciousness [Jackendoff, 2002].
He lived 1947 to ?. People can be aware that they are dreaming when they have lucid dreaming, in phasic REM sleep. They can perform voluntary acts, such as moving eyeballs and changing breathing rate, but REM inhibits other muscles.
He invented neo-dissociation theory.
When brain evolved to respond quickly to emergency by having high alertness, consciousness began as just concomitant. As people came to have continuing little emergencies, consciousness persisted.
Amnesiacs can respond to cues {priming, Weiskrantz} and so improve ability to recognize [1968: with Elizabeth Warrington]. He asked subjects to press key and give commentary about whether they perceived stimulus {commentary-key paradigm}.
Animals can suffer. Measuring suffering level observes effort that animal exerts to avoid or escape from cause. Animals with more complex behaviors probably can have more suffering. Animals with more complex physiology probably can have more suffering. Animals use signals, such as skin color. They also can recognize species individuals and other species.
He lived 1946 to ? and studied contrastive analysis, deep context, global workspace, self-concept, and self-systems. Global workplace is an extended reticular thalamocortical activating system (ERTAS) [Baars, 2002].
He lived 1951 to ?. He invented the bumps and hollows illusion and studied filling-in. He developed Utilitarian Theory of Perception. Perhaps, people produce art to play or to gain pleasure, to stimulate perceptions and exercise art laws. Perhaps, people produce art to show hand-eye coordination and attract mates. Perhaps, people want art to show wealth and attract mates, so they order art. Perhaps, people rehearse abstracting future activity. Perhaps, art has ten universal laws. Art shows and possibly amplifies individual differences from average {peak shift}. Art discovers abstract triggers of perception used by brain to recognize objects and possibly amplifies them. Perception groups surfaces that share feature to make one object {grouping}, so art uses shared features. Mind has to solve problems to perceive {perceptual problem solving}, so art encourages camouflage and ambiguity. Art uses as few features as possible in the outline {understatement, art} {isolation, art}. Art uses composition with balanced opposites {contrast, art}. Art uses composition with various symmetry forms {symmetry, art}. Art depicts universals, not chance or random coincidences. Art uses composition, including rhythm and repeats {repetition, art}, and arrangements of geometry and intensity {balance, art}. Art combines unrelated objects to emphasize feature {metaphor, art}.
Consciousness is higher-order thoughts about representations {higher-order thought theory, Rosenthal} {meta-representation, Rosenthal}.
He developed a materialist psychology, with no mind {eliminative materialism, Stich}.
He studied mind and dreaming.
She lived 1957 to ? and studies blindsight.
He studied amnesia.
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He studied microconsciousness [Zeki, 1998] and essential nodes [Zeki, 2001]. In area V5, cells detect spot or line motion direction. In V4, cells detect color difference. Cells can respond to relative intensities at different wavelengths or to actual perceived color, which depends on surroundings. Adjacent to primary visual cortex, cells can detect line orientation, receptive fields are larger, and mapping varies.
He lived 1948 to ? and studied enactive perception. Perception depends on sense and motor actions. It is not about representation but about capacity to do something.
He studied extended consciousness, autobiographical self, core-self, proto-self, somatic marker, akinetic mutism, and epileptic automatism.
Consciousness involves special brain regions, which attend to brain regions that regulate body. Wakefulness, attention, and consciousness are separate. Consciousness involves perceptions and emotion mental parts, because emotions precede consciousness. Consciousness is response but is not overt.
Emotion is an innate pattern of chemical and neural responses to stimulus patterns. Emotions involve brainstem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain, which regulate body. Reticular formation, cranial nerve nuclei, amygdala, anterior cingulate, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex send axons to periaqueductal gray (PAG), which coordinates emotions. Damage to ventromedial prefrontal cortex reduces social behaviors and emotions {prefrontal lobe syndrome}. Different emotions involve different brain regions. Emotions are automatic but learning and consciousness can affect them. Emotions lead to feelings, which involve cortex.
Images become explicit, consciously or unconsciously, in mental space {image space}. Memory, recall, movement, attention, and image processing are in implicit unconscious mental space {dispositional space}.
Symbols are mental image: spatial and temporal, concrete or abstract, conscious or unconscious, or mental patterns representing objects and concepts. Images depend on neural patterns of chemical and electrical activity. Mental uses symbols directly.
Cerebral association cortex recognizes stimulus, which sends signals to amygdala to trigger emotional reaction, which sends to basal forebrain, hypothalamus, and brainstem to perform reaction. Brain senses body changes and conveys information to trigeminal nucleus, parabrachial nucleus, nucleus tractus solitarius, ventral medial thalamus, insula, anterior cingulate, and ventromedial frontal lobes to make emotional state. Mental states arising from brain sensory events are feelings, which are ideas about body state, having both thoughts and processing methods [Damasio, 1999].
She invented dying brain hypothesis. People copy and recombine memes {memetics}. Imitation development associates with big brains and language. Imitation also allowed sense of self and other [Blackmore, 2006].
Mind is non-local.
She lived 1950 to ?. Consciousness level depends on brain size and complexity.
He lived 1958 to ?. Experience is unity {Holon}. Experience involves model of self {self-model theory}.
Consciousness starts from social interaction but then needs to expand to link brain modules. Mammals gained general ability to make primates, then specialized language and culture to make early hominins, and then general ability to make modern humans.
He lived 1947 to ?. Anesthetics can interact with brain-cell microtubules.
He lived 1966 to ?. Information is physical and phenomenal, and physical properties cause phenomenal properties, so same physical situation can cause different phenomena {double-aspect theory, information} {naturalistic dualism}, which is non-reductive.
Judgments about experience have functional or physical explanations, but experience is not part of the explanation, even when the judgment is that experience is not physical or functional {paradox of phenomenal judgment}.
If artificial parts replace neurons with same functions, do qualia fade {fading qualia}?
If artificial parts switch back and forth with neurons with same functions, do qualia flip {dancing qualia}?
How do brain processes cause sensations {hard problem, consciousness}? How do brain processes cause mental functions like perceiving, attending, waking, sleeping, moving voluntarily, and categorizing {easy problem, consciousness}?
Consciousness supervenes on the physical but is a different reality type. Phenomena, conscious states, emerge from physical structures and functions according to laws. Before 1800, people thought electromagnetism was reducible to mechanics, but instead it became a new irreducible force. Phenomena are irreducible properties, not substances, of nature, requiring non-reductive theory. Experience properties, relations, and structures reflect nervous-system anatomy and physiology, as well as physical stimuli. Brain process can generate consciousness [Chalmers, 2000] [Chalmers, 2002].
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He invented, with Mark Pimm-Smith, a message-aware control mechanism, with inner loop for specific messages from sense modules, connected to controller with goals and attention.
Thoughts {non-iconic thought} can have no images.
He invented global neuronal workspace theory, in which neurons have permanent and temporary modules connected over long and short distances, for perception, memory, attention, emotion, evaluation, and action.
Only humans are self-consciousness and feelings, because only they have language.
Perception uses temporal steps {microgenesis, Bachmann} [Bachmann, 2000].
He lived 1942 to ? and is Critical Realist. Brain and mind are one, because physical world and experience have same place and time with similar intensities {reflexive monism}. He invented reflexive model of consciousness.
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He studied mind as neural dynamical system, in which waves have synchronous phase by phase locking and then transition to new phase. Brains are self-organizing systems in critical states that transition to global patterns.
He lived 1922 to 1997. People with high or low adrenaline have same moods and so chemical levels do not cause emotions, with Jerome Singer. Moods depend on social-situation cognition. Arousal accompanies fear, sex, anger, and elation.
Differing expected and actual perception or cognition, or interrupting perception or cognition, produces undifferentiated autonomic nervous system arousal, especially in viscera. Arousal directs more attention to environment. General visceral arousal causes the feeling of emotion.
Thought, past-experience, and environmental-signal differences cause emotion differences, not visceral-arousal differences.
Chimpanzees have a sense of self from their behavior, but no awareness of mental states. Chimpanzees look to where another is looking. Chimpanzees do not realize that others are not looking, though three-year old children do realize it in same situation.
He lived 1857 to 1911 and developed Binet intelligence scale and intelligence quotient.
He lived 1874 to 1949 and studied learning, education, testing, and animal intelligence. He studied instrumental learning, law of effect, law of exercise, law of readiness, operant conditioning, puzzle-box, reinforcement, and learning transfer [Thorndike, 1911]. Imitation is seeing action, remembering it, and then doing it.
He lived 1872 to 1961 and invented intelligence test [1905], Binet-Simon Scale, with Binet.
He lived 1877 to 1956, invented Stanford-Binet test and Terman group intelligence tests, and studied gifted children.
He lived 1888 to 1964 and studied intelligence.
He lived 1887 to 1955. He worked on psychometrics, army recruiting tests, mental qualities, attitude scales, learning curves, mental development units, intelligence tests, multiple factor analyses, and psychoneurotic tendencies.
He lived 1883 to 1971. He studied individual ability and character differences and how heredity determined differences. He developed statistical methods to quantify what differed among people {factor analysis, Burt}. He invented a verbal reasoning test.
He lived 1896 to 1981, studied verbal and performance intelligence {Wechsler Bellevue Scale} [1939], and invented WAIS test [1955].
He lived 1897 to 1967 and studied intellectual structure {Structure of Intellect}.
He lived 1912 to 2001 and studied creativity and intelligence.
He lived 1943 to ?. Intelligence is problem-solving ability.
He lived 1925 to ? and studied ape intelligence and natural language.
He studied problem-solving.
He lived 1889 to 1966 and studied conditioning and learning.
He lived 1916 to 2002 and studied cumulative learning theory [Gagné, 1977].
He lived 1850 to 1909 and tried to find human-memory laws [1880 to 1890]. He invented novel syllables {nonsense syllable, Ebbinghaus}, with vowel between two consonants, to ensure learning had no previous associations. Memories can last for minutes or longer. Repetition strengthens memory. Memory content involves storing basic units, such as shapes, sizes, motions, and qualities. Memory strength is number of stored or recalled units. Complex memories have same laws as basic unit memories.
He lived 1839 to 1916 and studied retrograde amnesia. Brain injury damages recent memories more than older ones {Ribot's law, Ribot}.
He lived 1854 to 1900, discovered amnesia type [1887], and studied Korsakoff syndrome [Korsakoff, 1887].
He lived 1850 to 1934 and studied memory consolidation over time [1893: with Alfons Pilzecker].
He lived 1886 to 1969 and helped found cognitive psychology. He used reaction times and image rotation to learn about representation properties. He studied memory using stories and pictures.
Organisms must understand current situation to know how to behave and so search for meaning in environment. Perceiving, recognition, imaging, and recall are for meaning. Thinking uses past experience to solve problems and choose from possible solutions. Thinking is skill, which improves with instruction and practice, by interpolation or extrapolation.
Memory is construction from all mental information representations and is easy to forget and distort.
Memory and recall have no basic units, because stimuli have multiple responses. Random words or nonsense syllables can have related meanings but do not have higher-level categories, making them poor memory test, because abstract higher-level categories are important for memory.
Structures organize motor events, integrate/relate/give meaning to objects and events, and interpret {schema, Bartlett}. Schemas are at every meaning level in semantic hierarchies. Schemas also underlie memory strength. Memory strength depends on object and event relation to constructed schema. Memory content is more meaningful if it matches schema. The schema can alter memory content to fit schema and improve understanding and meaning. People remember meaningful content better.
Stories, descriptions, and pictures have meaning. Confusing sentences in stories can test if recall is less and/or distorted, because they cannot be meaningful. People recall ambiguous, complex, unexpected, out-of-context, or illogical sentences relative to constructed schema more weakly and/or with more changes. Higher-order schemas isolate and connect sentences, which integrate with different strengths.
People remember sentences that evoke emotion more strongly, because they integrate more, not match cues more.
Perceptual codes have no hierarchy. Semantic codes have hierarchy and so last longer.
Memories weaken over time and people can forget them.
He lived 1873 to 1940, studied human brain-injury and disease psychological consequences, and studied visual object-recognition defects. Amnesic states can have partial recent-memory preservation {implicit memory, Claparède}.
He lived 1897 to 1942. Long-term memories do not change or weaken over time [1932].
He lived 1902 to 1977 and studied emotional-stress effects on human motor reactions. He studied eidetic imagery [Luria, 1980].
He lived 1904 to 1985. Memory and information distribute among cortex cell assemblies. Synapses strengthen if presynaptic activity correlates with postsynaptic activity {Hebb rule}. Hebbian rules can only find large input correlations, like interactions between self-generated actions and perceptions. For example, neurons can correlate saccadic eye movements with neuron responses to find motion direction. Eye movement signals that direct saccades to objects initiate object representation. Network circuits {Hebbian circuit} can learn only if receiving part alters sending-part behavior.
She lived 1918 to ?.
He lived 1906 to 1984. He studied H.M. [1953], who had no bilateral temporal lobes or hippocampus after surgery and did not make long-term memories, though he learned motor tasks [1962: with Brenda Milner].
Another William Scoville used parts per million of capsicum {SHU scale} to measure hot pepper heat [1912].
He lived 1920 to ?. Concepts or perceptions can be chunks of previous concepts or perceptions [1956]. Number of chunks that people can keep in immediate memory is seven, plus or minus two. Perhaps, chunking synchronizes information subsets into units.
He lived 1926 to 1993 and studied Broadbent filtering effect, cocktail party effect, filter theory, memory position effects, primacy effect, and recency effect [Broadbent, 1958].
He lived 1928 to ?. Memory is like reconstructing dinosaur from bones alone.
They studied memory.
He lived 1927 to ?. Systems have interacting subsystems {agent} that perform actions for whole system. Agents take input and produce output. Systems perform actions for makers. Agents can restore other agents to previous states {K-line}. Brain agents {polyneme} can initiate processes in other agencies, which use learning and memory to act on signals. Agents can trigger other agents with unknown learned behaviors to respond, like triggering memory. Agents can cause agents with known fixed behaviors to act in coordinated ways {isonome}. They activate short-term memory in other agencies and coordinate activities. Similar temporary agents {pronome} hold and move mental-state active fragments. Agents can act directly on outside world. Knowledge-agent {microneme} combinations activate word agents. Agents can be forms {frame}. Form nodes can hold lower agent types. Nodes have default agents.
People can mistake failure of imagination for insight into necessity {philosophers' syndrome}.
Small cerebral-cortex lesions can reduce object-category knowledge {category-specific knowledge}: frontal and parietal {manipulation category} or temporal {vision category}. Word categories can be lost.
He described selectionist theory of memory.
Mood induces memories with similar mood.
She studied co-existence hypothesis, erasure hypothesis, and inhibition hypothesis [Loftus and Ketcham, 1994].
From repeated experience, people build knowledge structures that provide background information and default settings for processes {script, Schank}. Structures coordinate event sequence. People have many scripts and need to realize which script to use. As rule sets {rules of script}, scripts can predict. Scripts include all scenes and events related to process. Scenes and events share some features but not others, and scripts note differences.
People can plan events {plan application}, to reach goals that brain monitors for progress {goal tracking}. Memory {dynamic memory, brain} must be able to change, learn, include new information, and relate information to previous information.
People also remember scenes. People have general and abstract memory structures and processes, as well as scripts, which guide scene attention and selection.
People notice what deviates from general structures and incorporate the information into general knowledge if it repeats. Stimuli remind of previous scenes, scripts, and general knowledge structures {processing-based reminding}. Organizing memories causes more reminding. Mental processing includes reminding, which uses same structures as storing memories and processing input. Process repeats same structures for similar thing and has reminding. Understanding is remembering similar situation. Reminding becomes less as object or event integrates more and becomes unconscious.
Unexpected events add pointers and indexes to script to note differences and exceptions. People do not expect new things only if they see them in context in which they expected something else, so there must be conscious attention, thwarted goal, or difference from previous thing, not just something entirely new or meaningless.
Memories, reminding, and processing are simultaneous in script application, plan application, and goal tracking. Story always involves goal, why. In trying to reach goal, people can fail to perform obvious subgoals {goal subsumption failure}, face obstacles, move toward new goal, or have more than one goal.
People can search memory intentionally. Scenes connect by higher order knowledge structures {memory organization packet, scene} (MOP). Abstract concepts connect by higher order knowledge structures {thematic organization packet, Schank} (TOP).
Consciousness is just observing unconscious mental processing. It is for learning explanations, applying rules, and questioning, but it interferes with well-learned activities.
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He studied articulatory loop. He invented working-memory models, with visuospatial sketchpads, phonological loops, and episodic buffers [Baddeley, 1990]. Working memory connects to executive and long-term memory.
Frontal lobe region is for working memory.
He studied learning and memory.
Preschool children are easily suggestible about past events.
Memory allows efficient coding, search, retrieval, generalization, discrimination, adaptation, and survival. Brain has sensory Specialized Knowledge Modules, which can activate reflexes and awareness, and reasoning and acting Executive System, which can inform consciousness of plans, activate habits, control senses, and respond voluntarily. Intermediate system {conscious awareness system} integrates information from modules for use by executive system and exchanges information with episodic memory. Executive only uses conscious information. He studied memory transience. He invented Dissociable Interactions and Conscious Experience (DICE) model, with consciousness-awareness system connected to executive, memory, response system, and lexical, conceptual, spatial, facial, and self-modules [Schacter, 2001].
He lived 1578 to 1643 and described Moon illusion and afterimages.
He lived 1786 to 1889 and invented Chevreul's array of progressively darker gray strips, which showed edge-enhancement effects.
He lived 1861 to 1891, found tractus dorsolateralis or Lissauer's tract [1855], and invented model for visual recognition [1890]. Patients can fail to form associations between memories and perceptions or fail to form perceptions {mind-blindness} [1879].
He lived 1801 to 1887. Sensation intensity is proportional to logarithm of stimulus {Weber-Fechner law, Fechner} {Weber's law, Fechner}. Logarithmic scale measures sensation intensity: S = k * log(I) + A, where S = sensation, k = relative-difference ratio, I = intensity, and A = absolute threshold. The law applies if sensations have categories {category scaling}. To detect just noticeable difference in sensation at higher intensities, stimulus intensity must increase in geometrical proportion. Sense qualities and psychological functions relate to stimuli {psychophysics, Fechner}.
Aesthetics
Method of paired comparisons can judge aesthetic preferences.
He lived 1832 to 1920 and founded experimental and physiological psychology. He studied attention, apperception, sense processes, and reaction times. He trained himself in introspection [Wundt, 1873]. Melancholic and choleric emotional types of Galen have strong emotional reactions, but phlegmatic and sanguine emotional types do not.
Epistemology
Ideas are mental processes, not objects. Mind combines units to make objects and perceptions {structuralism, Wundt}.
He lived 1839 to 1900 used the term mind-blindness [1878] and found optic chiasm [1879].
Visual afterimage has larger size if is thought to be far away and smaller size if it is thought to be nearby, so afterimage apparent size directly relates to apparent distance {Emmert's law, Emmert}.
Later, society for psychical research began in USA.
He lived 1848 to 1936 and studied tone and music psychology {act psychology, Stumpf} at School of Graz. He studied experimental phenomenology [Stumpf, 1890].
He lived 1860 to 1944, experimentally tried hashish, and measured reaction times and small perception differences [1902].
He lived 1842 to 1921 and studied perception and behavior physiology.
He lived 1857 to 1916 and invented illusion {Müller-Lyer illusion, Muller-Lyer} [1889]. Mind uses both figure and ground to perceive object {confluxion principle} {principle of confluxion}.
He lived 1859 to 1933. Shape or melody directly relates to sense-stimulation pattern, but perception infers and selects figure {gestalt, Ehrenfels} from ground. Shape or object has constancies and change directions, and these are the most-basic gestalt properties.
He lived 1865 to 1957. Distorting lenses make background appear to move at first, but soon users learn and background becomes stationary [1896 to 1897].
He lived 1863 to 1944 and invented duck-rabbit illusion [1899], which relates to aspect perception using concepts.
He lived 1869 to 1962, measured individual differences, and invented objective emotional-stability tests.
He lived 1858 to 1927. If people view pendulums with sunglasses over one eye and nothing over other eye, pendulums appear to move in elliptical paths, with depth {Pulfrich's pendulum} {Pulfrich stereophenomenon} [1921]. Perhaps, sunglass delays signal transmission from retina to brain {delay line explanation}, eye sees sunglass-filtered pendulum at previous position compared to uncovered eye, and different positions cause stereoscopic disparity and appearance of depth.
Actually, eye adaptation to lower illumination causes delay. Depth effect also happens with stroboscopically lit objects and in television-set "snow".
He lived 1884 to 1953 and studied touch and color vision.
He lived 1880 to 1943, founded Gestalt psychology, and studied apparent visual motion.
He lived 1864 to 1922. He postulated that two forms of cutaneous sensation exist, broad {protopathic sensation} and narrow {epicritic sensation}. However, this theory is false. Many dreams are fantasy attempts to resolve current emotional problems.
He lived 1886 to 1951 and studied figure and ground and vase-profile illusion [1915].
He lived 1886 to 1941 and helped found Gestalt psychology.
He lived 1887 to 1967 and co-founded Gestalt School. Insight, not trial and error, solves problems that involve thought or tool use. Insight involves perception rearrangement {restructuring}, to reveal previously hidden or unnoticed features.
He lived 1894 to 1984 and studied size and brightness constancies. Perceived object property, such as size, shape, or brightness, is intermediate between stimulus pattern property in peripheral senses and object property {compromise element} {element of compromise} [1972]. Learning does not affect element of compromise. Element of compromise has individual differences.
He lived 1868 to 1935. Some notes and chords are musical structural bases {Schenkerian analysis}. Other notes and chords are elaboration and ornamentation patterns.
At Duke University, he was the father of parapsychology, did card guessing, and studied telepathy, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis {ESP experiment} [Rhine, 1934] [Rhine, 1947]. All his research is suspect, because his experimenters' suggestions caused positive results.
He lived 1903 to 1955 and studied perception.
He lived 1873 to 1954. Normal perception uses key features, such as recognizing meaningful facial expressions and other complex perceptions in simple drawings [1935].
He lived 1903 to 1940 and studied induced motion and studied productive thinking.
He lived 1906 to 1973.
Cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, differences, and ratios measure stimuli or sensations {magnitude estimation, Stevens}. Neural signal discreteness {neural quantum theory} limits sense-discrimination sensitivity.
Sensation magnitudes S are directly proportional to physical-stimuli magnitudes I, raised to power b [1962] {Stevens' power law}: S = a*I^b, where a is constant for sense. Sound has the power 0.3, so loudness is not high as physical noise {sone scale} [1936]. Brightness has power 0.3, so sensation intensity is not as high as physical intensity. Lengths have power 1, and sensation and intensity match. Pain has power 3, so pain is more intense than the physical stimuli.
He lived 1906 to 2005, discovered LSD-25 [1938], and showed that related alkaloids {lysergic acid amide} {lysergic acid hydroxyethylamide} are naturally in plants [1959].
He lived 1914 to 1945 and studied eye adaptations to illumination changes.
Retina has adaptations to both light and dark. Adaptation adjusts illumination range expected, to make eye most efficient at detecting signals in that range. Adaptation is about expectations and is predictive, just as is all thinking. Brain models external reality and can make successful predictions, just as machines can predict. Retina has visual afterimages.
Mental processes build and use representations using rules.
He lived 1923 to 1969 and studied vision and neurons.
He lived 1880 to 1955, studied education, and invented distorting rooms {Ames room} [1946].
He invented stereochemical theory of odor [1946].
He lived 1903 to 1973 and studied interactions between classical and instrumental conditioning. He suggested that one cell (grandmother cell) can recognize a perception or store an object concept [Konorski, 1967].
He lived 1913 to 1993. He invented and studied figures that had illusory contours.
He lived 1904 to 1979. He studied visual shape and motion perception in natural conditions, when observer moved freely while objects were still, or objects moved while observer was still {visual flow, Gibson}.
Higher-order object features can be invariant during motion or rotation. Perception involves acquiring such information from ambient sensations. Sense qualities provide motion lines {flow line} and texture gradients {ecological optics}. People seem to perceive such features without visual computation.
People can adapt to distorting lenses but slightly overadapt.
He lived 1922 to 1976.
Enjoyable feelings follow electrically stimulating septal region, lateral hypothalamus, and other limbic-system parts used for reward and motivation {pleasure center} {self-stimulation} [1953: with Peter Milner]. Sensory neocortex stimulation never causes such enjoyable feelings. Dopamines affect limbic-system septal region. Hippocampus and amygdala stimulation can cause unpleasant feelings.
He studied eye-hand coordination. Visual depth perception requires coordinated self-movement, with Alan Hein. Self-produced movements result in sensory stimulation {reafference}. Visual motor skills require reafference, but reflexes do not. Sensory stimulation is independent of self-produced movements {exafference}.
He invented letter-recognition models {Pandemonium model}. Lowest level recognized letter features, such as straight and curved line segments at different orientations. Middle level suggested letters based on feature combinations. Highest level chose letter based on weights from middle-level letters.
He lived 1916 to 1977 and studied wartime brain-wound psychological effects. He investigated social networks [1967] and found how many links {six degrees of separation} can connect all population members.
He lived 1919 to ?. Algorithms can first test, then operate, then test, and then exit {test-operate-test-exit} {TOTE unit} [1960: with Miller and Galanter]. Units are in networks. He discussed dissipative structures in neurons and holonomic theory. Cortical dendrites hold wave interference patterns, which activate by partial input [Pribram, 1991].
He lived 1928 to 2003. Picture with random, identical, featureless dots {random-dot stereogram} {random dot stereogram} (RDS) [1971] can make perceivers see object surface lying in front of background surface or see three-dimensional object {stereopsis, Julesz}. RDS has no monocular depth cues, so only cyclopean stimuli signal depth. Object and background have same hue and brightness. Stereoscopic fusion and depth do not need recognizable objects or line features.
If dots fall randomly on surfaces with different-color regions, dots fall on colors with specific frequencies {first-order statistic} [1962]. Randomly thrown needles fall on color combinations with specific frequencies {second-order statistic}. Randomly thrown triangles have specific frequencies with which the three vertices fall on color combinations {third-order statistic}. Texture discrimination processes, which happen before attention processes, use first-order and second-order statistics but not third-order statistics. Similar textures have identical second-order and first-order statistics. Second-order texture classes are many.
He lived 1905 to 1998 and studied color vision.
He lived 1910 to ? and studied mind drugs.
He developed stereochemical theory of smell.
He lived 1920 to 1996 and used drugs for freedom.
He developed the gate control theory of pain [1965], with Patrick Wall. He said people have body image {phylomatrix} {body-schema}.
He lived 1923 to ?. Perceptions are good guesses about what physical world is like.
He invented Cornsweet-Craik illusion.
He studied deaf people.
Perception can happen without consciousness.
He lived 1926 to 1984 and traced perceptual deficits to specific brain lesions. Wernicke's areas on right and left sides differ.
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He studied imagery.
He studied color vision.
He lived 1945 to 1980 and modeled cerebellum function. He emphasized need to study brain's task, from requirements, to functions, to implementation. He developed theory of how visual system recognizes lines and edges, using neurophysiology and psychology. Objects have different representations at different stages, to facilitate recognition [Marr, 1982].
He studied imagery.
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He studied methods for vision in robots. He proposed axioms for consciousness and tests for consciousness, with Barry Dunmall.
He studied perception.
Objects have spatiotemporal continuity, on which perception always relies to define objects.
He said perceptions have geon units and invented a model {recognition-by-components, Biederman}.
He studied disparity detectors [Blakemore and Greenfield, 1987].
He studied mental representations [Papineau, 2006].
Representational systems can focus attention on environment or self regions or intervals. They can extract information from environment, represent information accurately to useful detail, and use information for function. These representational abilities can evolve from simpler state. Representation does not indicate anything about representational system and cannot represent itself.
Minimum representational system has more than one information channel, whose inputs converge, and has way to use or store converged output.
However, one channel can contain as much information as two channels, if it has enough capacity. Serial-processing algorithm can be equivalent to parallel-processing algorithm. Input can be equivalent to converged inputs. Relying only on representational-system physical characteristics cannot explain representation, because representation is informational, rather than physical.
She lived 1956 to ?.
He studied synesthesia, which relates to limbic system.
He studied synesthesia.
Imagine a planet {Black Planet} that one cannot see or know until one puts on a spacesuit with correct sensors that transduce physical energies into what one can sense. Black Planet is Earth, and transducer and human senses.
He studied sense substitution. Tongue arrays can replace vestibular system. He invented Tactile Vision Substitution System [Bach-y-Rita and González, 2002].
He found macrocolumns, with Lorente de No.
He developed the Intelligent Distribution Agent (IDA) application. IDA performs Global-Workspace-Theory top-level functions and has multiple-threaded independent agents {codelet}. IDA knows skills of Navy personnel and what they like to do after current tour ends. It also knows Navy policies and what jobs Navy needs to fill [Franklin, 1998].
He developed bottom-up system to try to build perception, imagery, inner speech, pain and pleasure, and emotions from artificial neurons, using no algorithms, but only distributed signals, cross-links, analysis, and reports. Process becomes conscious when it is sufficiently complex {emergence, Haikonen}. System uses no numbers, only meanings.
He developed robots with internal models and control systems, with Rod Goodman. Perhaps, sufficiently complex and intelligent control systems can have consciousness emerge {emergence, Holland}.
Virtual machines can model consciousness-like information processing. Models can define consciousness and mind as architectures. Information processing shows that qualia-concepts depend on architecture. Architecture structures qualia themselves.
People speak to themselves voice {inner voice} to express their thoughts, and this information processing structure is useful.
They studied psychology and perception biology.
He lived 1884 to 1922 and developed standardized personality test {Rorschach test, Rorschach} using inkblots for free association [1921].
He lived 1898 to 1977. Descriptive personality theory {type theory, Sheldon} postulates that people have some personality types, which depend on a main trait or trait set: ectomorphy, mesomorphy, or endomorphy.
He lived 1905 to 1998. Descriptive personality theory {trait theory} lists 35 overt personality manifestations {surface trait} caused by 16 basic factors {source trait}. Source traits are values in ranges between two extremes: reserved/outgoing, less intelligent/more intelligent, affected by feeling/emotionally stable, submissive/dominant, serious/happy-go-lucky, expedient/conscientious, timid/adventurous, tough minded/sensitive, trusting/suspicious, practical/imaginative, self assured/apprehensive, conservative/experimenting, forthright/shrewd, self sufficient/group dependent, uncontrolled/controlled, and relaxed/tense.
He lived 1897 to 1967 and studied personality and expressive behavior. Personality traits are pervasive, central, or weak, as determined by trait frequency, range, and intensity.
He lived 1916 to 1979 and studied field dependence and cognitive styles.
He lived 1577 to 1640 and studied melancholia.
He lived 1734 to 1815, invented hypnosis {animal magnetism} [1778], and used tub {baquet} of magnetized water for cures.
He lived 1745 to 1826 and divided mental disorders into four groups: mania, melancholia, dementia, and idiocy [1798].
He lived 1835 to 1895 and studied if animal can be masochistic.
He lived 1856 to 1926 and determined that manic-depressive psychosis [1899] and schizophrenia [1893] differ [1899]. Mental disorders can arise from metabolic or other defects that are not psychological adaptations. They show neurological signs for different behavioral and psychological mental-disease syndromes. They associate with painful symptom {distress} or impaired functioning {disability}. They involve behaviors that are persistent or repetitive, resist modification, and do not remove anxiety sources.
He lived 1857 to 1927 and studied token economies [Bekhterev, 1913].
He lived 1859 to 1939. Psychotherapy can link cognitions and emotions, so thoughts can control emotions {rational-emotive therapy, Ellis}. Therapist argues and discusses {insightful countersuggestion, Ellis}, to attack patient's irrational beliefs.
He lived 1859 to 1947 and studied neuroses, psychasthenia, anxiety states, phobias, obsessional disorders, and dissociation.
Neurosis reduces integration {sentiment d'incomplétude} among psychological functions, which ordinarily form hierarchy. People can have dependency wish {amae, Janet}.
All human communities use logical inference as thinking basis.
He lived 1857 to 1939 and studied schizophrenia and hysteria. Schizophrenia begins in adolescence or early adult life, is endogenous, and gets progressively worse if untreated [1911].
He lived 1852 to 1933, was Neo-Kantian, and studied Nietzsche.
Efforts to protect self-esteem and habits cause neurotic symptoms.
Epistemology
Only emotions and sensations are real. All knowledge, even logic, rests on useful fictions {as-if}. Human character and actions has teleological explanation, using mental constructs or models {fiction}. Human life has fictive goals and plans to achieve goals.
Ethics
People construct their habits and character based on meanings in their situations. Character builds unconsciously and uniquely. Children need tasks that they can accomplish, to gain confidence and build character.
He lived 1870 to 1937 and founded School of Individual Psychology. People can feel that they are inferior {inferiority complex} and therefore compensate. For example, people can feel physically inferior and compensate by increasing their size or abilities. People can feel their sexual organs are inferior. Small, weak, and dependent children can feel inferior and feminine.
He lived 1877 to 1925 and developed a personal-development theory and a psychoanalysis variant. Instinctual energy discharge {discharge of instinct} requires another person or thing. People have emotional involvement with objects or internal representations. Obsession is strong focus on emotional object for fear of losing it. Depression is loss of emotional object, and people attempt to restore it. All children need to attachment to a mother-like person. Medial temporal lobe makes declarative memories but not short-term memory, memory storage, or procedural memories.
He lived 1857 to 1926 and used self-induced suggestion {auto-suggestion}.
He lived 1882 to 1949 and was therapist.
She lived 1882 to 1960 and developed an infantile development theory, as a psychoanalysis variant.
Even infants have emotions like love, fear, hate, and concern. By observing play, people can know normal and abnormal child behavior patterns and emotional states. Object-relations between infant and parent can change at either of two stages {object-relations school}. Disturbances in first stage, pre-oedipal period before age two {paranoid-schizoid position}, lead to paranoia or schizophrenia. Children want self-survival and need love and attachment to emotional object but project death-wishes on emotional objects. Personality splitting, idealization, projection, and introjection are defense mechanisms. Disturbances in second stage, oedipal period from age two to five {depressive position}, lead to depression. Children realize that mother is a whole and separate person. Children want that mother remain an emotional object. Envy or anger can cause children to wish damage or destruction on objects. Children can identify with emotional objects in both stages, and feelings in first stage affect feelings in second stage.
Three-person family relationships, two-person relationships {attachment, Klein} {therapist-patient}, and one-person creativity require different descriptions. Two-person relationships involve transference from one person to the other and projection and introjection defense mechanisms.
He lived 1897 to 1957. Illness can result from society's repression and authoritarianism. Individuals can act to protect themselves from such society and so imprison spontaneous tendencies {bio-energy}, which normally require freedom and expression. Confined bio-energy can cause tension and illness. People express tension in faces and bodies. People choose behaviors that protect {character armor} {muscular armor} them from their own or others' anxiety or anger. Energy fills universe and can heal {orgone theory}.
He lived 1878 to 1965 and studied aphasia and brain injury effects.
She lived 1885 to 1952 and studied repression.
He lived 1893 to 1988. Environment force or process {need-press theory} causes organism force or process {need}.
He lived 1907 to 1990. Mental health and proper development depend on close and enjoyable relation to, and communication with, mother. Young children typically attach themselves to their mother in second six months. Attachment prepares children for monogamous relationships at sexual maturity.
He lived 1900 to 1980 and was psychoanalyst.
He lived 1888 to 1969 and studied ethics.
He lived 1919 to 1990, was psychoanalyst, and started Menninger Foundation [1941].
He lived 1893 to 1970. He used psychotherapy {gestalt therapy, Perls} to emphasize, enhance, and complete figure-ground differentiation in gestalten related to patient needs. Patient tries to understand actions and sensations, which self can then control. Gestalt therapy often involves problem dramatization and training patient to become more aware of self and environment, using both observation and inference. Patient moves attention between different focuses {shuttling}. If patient suffers from repetition or compulsion, patient comes to a satisfactory conclusion. If patient has split personality, patient is more aware of actual personality experiences. Gestalt therapy tries to change current defensive and manipulative behaviors, confront patient with real feelings and problems, and force patient to learn how to behave in new circumstances. Gestalt therapy is most effective with socialized, restrained, and constricted individuals.
He lived 1887 to 1974 and studied child emotional deprivation {anaclitic depression} [1946].
He lived 1898 to 1973. Practice, use, and experience during early childhood are not necessarily critical for normal neural or behavioral development.
He lived 1910 to 1970. Knowledge and prejudices of each generation transmit to next generation with variable but significant effects {transactional analysis}, with Thomas Harris.
She lived 1895 to 1982, directly observed young children's behavior, studied ego development, and studied defense-mechanism development.
He lived 1902 to 1994 and studied personality growth. Genuine intimacy is in 20's, generativity is in 30's to 50's, and self-integrity is in 50's.
He lived 1896 to 1971 and treated children.
He lived 1902 to 1987. Psychotherapy type {non-directive therapy, Rogers} {client-centered therapy, Rogers} reeducates patient as patient works through his or her own problem. Therapist provides understanding and acceptance, to modify patient's self-concept and self-esteem, so people can do what they will {self-actualization}.
He lived 1889 to 1964 and developed a systematic interpersonal-relationships theory {object relation}. Depressed people can have the delusion that they are responsible for their early environment and feel guilty about it {moral defense}, to be independent and avoid helplessness.
He lived 1898 to 1993.
He lived 1916 to 1997. Behavior therapy uses conditioning and learning theory to eliminate conditioned emotional responses, which are neurotic symptoms.
He developed a psychoanalysis variant [1954]. Ego is an integrated and inseparable self, with personality, objects, and identifications. Ego grows by internalizing love relations.
He lived 1907 to 1982 and studied stress syndrome. Pituitary and adrenal glands activate body against stress {stress syndrome}.
He lived 1915 to 1997 and developed behavior therapy {systematic desensitization} [1958].
He lived 1927 to 1989. Inability to form good personal relationships with others causes schizophrenia. Counseling emphasizes experiences in social interactions and imparts sympathy and understanding to help people form social relations. Psychiatric, diagnostic, and scientific methods do not address human relations.
He lived 1922 to 1984. Parents can abuse child, if they are under sufficient stress, child is frustrating them, and they allow themselves uncontrolled anger. Most chronically abusive parents expect children to always be obedient and to know parent needs. Parents abused them. They mimic young children's emotions. Parents more often abuse youngest child, children under two years old, prematurely born children, and children with congenital deformities. One child in family typically receives the most abuse.
He lived 1920 to ? and questioned whether mental illness really exists.
He lived 1931 to ?, invented nine-point personality typing {Enneagram}, and followed Gurdjieff. Psychotherapy can raise awareness of altered states, to reduce ego {ego destruction}. He founded Arica School {arica training} [1968].
He lived 1909 to 1994.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225