Retrieving information {recall}| from memory uses different mechanisms to return memory representations to consciousness or near consciousness. Recalling declarative knowledge creates experiences.
processes: cueing
Externally or internally supplied stimulus recalls memories from storage.
processes: errors
Recall can be inaccurate. People recall some memories better than others. Perhaps, they repeat them often.
processes: inhibition
Memories or cues can inhibit recalling other memories, because memories are contradictory or substitute.
processes: reconstruction
Recall builds from memories. Memories do not mix, but only select from among choices. However, features, such as color, can mix. People do not recall chimeras and contradictions.
Reporting recalled item requires consciousness.
processes: time coordinates
Memory creates time coordinates and uses them for recall and storage.
processes: voluntary retrieval
Information retrieval can be voluntary or automatic. Voluntary retrieval involves search strategy. Information non-retrieval is not voluntary.
properties: contradiction
Conscious recall does not allow unreal or contradictory contents.
properties: free recall
In free recall, people recall more items that are near each other in space or time {contiguity principle, recall}. In free recall, people recall class members better when cued with class but not classes when cued with class members. In free recall, people typically do not recall items in original order but form orders and repeat orders on subsequent recalls.
properties: time of day
Recall is better in morning than evening.
factors: context
People can recall same memory in one context but not another.
factors: hypnosis
Hypnosis does not increase memory retrieval. Memories retrieved under hypnosis are unreliable. Especially, early-infancy memories are probably not true.
factors: meaning
Meaningful events cause better and more accurate recall.
In free recall, people recall more items that have similar meaning {categorical clustering}.
Conscious recall can mix features {compromise memory, recall}, such as using one-object's color for another object.
Recall is easier and better if current conditions, internal and external, are similar to learning conditions {context dependency} {context-dependent retrieval}. The main internal context is mood. Recall is slightly, but significantly, better in same environment as learning environment. Environment can include learning act, material learned, place, time, mood, and physiological state. Context increases recall of items that match context itself.
Setting context before, but not after, performing recall task improves performance. Using context with same feature cues but not correct spatial relations does not improve performance.
meaning
Context can change memory meaning.
Perhaps, recall moves percept from coded content in unconsciousness to consciousness {direct retrieval hypothesis, recall}, based on association cues.
Searching can use a strategy {generate-recognize model} {generate/recognize model}, to test hypotheses.
Given arithmetic problems, subjects can recall problem answers or words. Number correctly recalled {operation span} depends on prose comprehension and short-term-memory information.
People can recall and re-express memory information {retrieval, memory}|. Memory reconstructs perception, starting from cue, by assembling information from mental regions.
process
Recall associates memory with current thought. The first step in recall or pattern detection is to identify expected object type. The second step is to select node or node system.
factors
Context, mood, and mental state affect retrieval.
How information makes categories affects recall. Recall is better if unusual event, image, or story connects with memory.
Practicing recall aids recall. Cramming increases success.
brain
Recall is poor if catecholamine level is low, because catecholamines arouse brain.
time
Retrieving memory using sequential search takes 0.5 seconds.
Perhaps, memory representations have concept, image, time, or context information {tag, memory} about target. Perhaps, memory representations have direct target association information.
If retrieval takes one step, mind retrieves the most-strongly activated target {single-stage model} {single-process model}.
If retrieval takes more than one step, cognitive decision or passive process determines retrieval from activated material {two-stage model} {two-process model} {decision model}.
Memory retrieval requires externally or internally supplied stimulus {cue, recall} related to information to retrieve {cueing, recall}. Cue quality determines retrieval, no matter memory or association strength. Strong and internal cue is mood. Everyday experiences provide retrieval cues for most information. Good retrieval cues come from good encoding.
working memory
One working-memory part stores cues, and other part stores retrieved representations. Conscious thoughts retrieve further conscious representations.
efficiency
Working memory depends on cue efficiency. Efficiency increases with long-term-memory organization and cueing strategies.
Retrieval places activated content into consciousness. If access does not encounter target memory, recall does not happen {cue-dependent forgetting}.
Retrieval places activated content into consciousness. If access encounters target memory, recall happens {cue-dependent recall}.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225