Learning {conditioning, learning}| can be association between stimulus and response or response and reward.
theories
Main theories about conditioning are stimulus-stimulus (S-S), stimulus-response (S-R), and expectancy [Watson, 1913] [Watson, 1924].
factors
Animal drives, habits, and sensitivities affect conditioning.
factors: reward
Punishment intensity or reward intensity affects conditioning speed and effectiveness.
Conditioning can depend on reinforcement unexpectedness. Surprise is a cognitive act.
factors: stimulus
The stronger the conditioned stimulus, the greater the reflex {stimulus strength, conditioning}
effects
Only conditioning can alter autonomic nervous system, which controls heart rate and blood pressure. Conditioning can alter voluntary nervous system.
timing
Maximum interval for conditioning is 30 minutes, but 0.5 sec is best.
biology
Conditioning is in brains, not peripheral organs.
biology: animals
Classical and instrumental conditioning are similar in many species [Hull, 1940] [Hull, 1943].
awareness
Instrumental conditioning can reflect learning about relationship between action and reinforcement, rather than just unconsciously increasing reflex or habit frequency.
If unconditioned stimulus elicits response and stimulus pairs in space and time repeatedly with another stimulus, second conditioned stimulus elicits conditioned response {classical conditioning}| {signal learning} {Pavlovian conditioning}.
properties: rules
Conditioned stimulus must predict conditioned response {contingency, conditioning}. Conditioned stimulus must be close in time to unconditioned stimulus {temporal contiguity, conditioning}.
passivity
Conditioning does not depend on human or animal actions. Pavlovian conditioning is unconscious for reflexes, autonomic nervous system, and emotions.
extinction
If pairing ceases, conditioning decreases by extinction.
comparison: sensitization
Classical conditioning is stronger and longer than sensitization.
Classical conditioning can teach people to avoid taste {conditioned taste aversion}.
For reflexes, classical conditioning can apply conditioned stimulus and then unconditioned stimulus, to cause conditioned response {delay conditioning} [Carrillo et al., 2000] [Carter et al., 2003] [Clark and Squire, 1998] [Clark and Squire, 1999] [Han et al., 2003] [Knuttinen et al., 2001] [Lovibond and Shanks, 2002] [Öhman and Soares, 1998] [Quinn et al., 2002].
Shock, noise, or scary image {fear conditioning, learning} {conditioned fear} changes skin conductance or makes animal stand still. Putting animal in same location used for fear conditioning causes fear {context fear conditioning} [Quinn et al., 2002].
In senses, when second stimulus follows first stimulus, second stimulus can pair with first stimulus {sensory preconditioning}. Second stimulus can cause the behavior that first stimulus causes. Sensory preconditioning is stimulus-stimulus classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning can use conscious conditioned stimuli {trace conditioning}, which involve declarative memory [Carrillo et al., 2000] [Carter et al., 2003] [Clark and Squire, 1998] [Clark and Squire, 1999] [Han et al., 2003] [Knuttinen et al., 2001] [Lovibond and Shanks, 2002] [Öhman and Soares, 1998] [Quinn et al., 2002].
After conditioning, conditioned stimuli elicit the same response {conditioned response} (CR) that unconditioned stimuli elicit.
After conditioning, stimuli {conditioned stimulus} (CS), such as musical notes, that were neutral before conditioning elicit conditioned responses.
Stimuli {unconditioned stimulus} (US) can naturally elicit behavioral responses and can pair in space and time with conditioned stimuli.
Conditioned stimuli have an optimum interval, starting 0.2 to 1 second before unconditioned stimulus and ending when both stimuli stop simultaneously {activity dependence}.
Conditioned stimuli must predict conditioned responses {contingency}.
Conditioned stimuli must be close in time to unconditioned stimuli {temporal contiguity, learning}.
If a stimulus elicits a response, and then organism gets a reward, response frequency to stimulus increases {instrumental learning}| {instrumental conditioning} {stimulus-response learning} {trial and error learning}.
process
Learning can be by trial and error, using instinctive movements. Accidental successes have satisfying effects. Failures have annoying effects. Behavior changes gradually, rather than by sudden insights. Over time, only correct movements survive.
Training on one task can transfer to training on different tasks, but does not necessarily transfer [Thorndike, 1903] [Thorndike, 1911].
emotion
People learn reactions, such as aggression, withdrawal, and persistence, to emotions through instrumental conditioning.
If organism performs behavior and receives reward, response frequency increases {operant conditioning, learning}| {response conditioning}. Higher animals can perform new behaviors, and rewarded operants reappear more frequently. Response conditioning does not associate stimulus and response. Operant conditioning does not need goals, only rewards. Operant conditioning is stronger if rewards are unpredictable [Watson, 1913] [Watson, 1924].
Instrumental learning experiments can use maze or box {puzzle-box}, from which animal escapes [Thorndike, 1903] [Thorndike, 1911].
Operant conditioning can happen in spontaneous, not learned, motor activities. Reinforced actions increase in frequency. Reward kinds and timing {token economy} affect instrumental conditioning [Bekhterev, 1913].
People repeat behaviors useful for drive and need reduction {continuity theory of learning}. As they develop, children internalize repeated actions [Hull, 1940] [Hull, 1943].
As children develop, they internalize repeated actions {behavior segment}. Practice leads to memory. Young children cannot combine behavior segments, but older children can combine two behavior segments to reach goal [Hull, 1940] [Hull, 1943].
Shock, noise, or scary image {fear conditioning, freezing} can make animal stand still {freeze, animal}|.
Fear conditioning changes skin conductance {galvanic skin conductance}.
External stimulus can cause covert internal response {mediation, stimulus}, which causes internal stimulus, which causes body response.
Over time, without stimulus repetition, conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli decrease {forgetting}|. Over time, without reinforcement, instrumental responses to conditioned stimuli decrease. All stimulus-response associative links or conditioned reflexes gradually disappear without reinforcement.
cause
Forgetting happens because events repeat without reward, not because time passed or people did not use response.
level
Forgetting can be complete, with no response or memory.
purpose
Forgetting allows retaining most-useful information.
forgetting rate
Maximum forgetting rate is immediately after learning. Forgetting rate decreases over one day and then levels off.
If stimulus pairing ceases, conditioned response fades {extinction, learning}|. Extinction has same stages and processes as conditioning. Near extinction time, activity level, response variation, and response force increase [Watson, 1913] [Watson, 1924].
Other learning causes forgetting {suppression, learning}|. Newer memories can modify older ones. More suppression results when more activities intervene between learning and recall. Blocking new learning prevents suppression.
Pleasurable or painful experience, above minimum level but not beyond maximum intensity, strengthens the bond between stimulus and response {law of effect}. People learn, remember, and repeat actions that immediately lead to pleasure, and these become habits. People do not remember actions leading to pain, to avoid painful behavior later [Thorndike, 1903] [Thorndike, 1911].
Repeating response under good conditions strengthens stimulus-response association, and reinforcement increases practice {law of exercise} {law of use} [Thorndike, 1903] [Thorndike, 1911].
Learning can happen if learner can respond, has interest, has background knowledge, is mature enough, and has motivation {law of readiness} [Thorndike, 1903] [Thorndike, 1911].
Behaviors can be similar to previous behaviors {response-response law} (R-R law).
Behaviors can always happen, given environment states or events {stimulus-response law} (S-R law).
6-Psychology-Cognition-Learning-Kinds
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Date Modified: 2022.0225