He lived -435 to -356. His ideas were the basis of Hedonistic or Cyrenaic School.
He lived -480 to -411. Morality conflicts with self-interest.
He lived -470 to -391 and started Moism or Mohist School, which advocated simple ceremonies and equal treatment of all people.
Antisthenes founded it. School had followers of Socrates and included Diogenes of Sinope, Menippus, Crates, Hipparchia, Teles, Bion, Menedemus, and Onesicistus. It discussed living and morals, not logic or metaphysics. It led to Stoic School.
Epistemology
Only identities can be true, because only they can be directly perceived.
Ethics
Virtue, knowledge of good, and excellence are the only good. Virtue by itself makes one happy. People can be free from desires and content with life if they conduct life intelligently. Being free of wants and desires makes people depend least on outside influences and random events. People should satisfy only two desires, hunger and love. Individual morals and ways of life are best. Civilization and its products create more desires and control people arbitrarily through laws and morals, so civilization is not good. Education teaches the low value of civilization and its conveniences.
Aristippus founded it based on his grandfather Aristippus of Cyrene's ideas. School had followers of Socrates and included Theodorus, Anniceris, Hegesius, Euemerus, and Bion. It led to Epicurean School.
Epistemology
The only worthy knowledge is what leads to happiness. People can know only immediate sense qualities. Past and future only cause doubt or worry.
Ethics
Sensual pleasure is the highest good, because organisms all try to gain pleasure and stay away from pain, pleasure is will satisfaction, and pleasure is life's main purpose. Pleasure is "smooth motion of flesh". Greatest will satisfaction happens when will gratifies senses in the present.
Education helps people select pleasures that have minimum present and future pain, enjoy the highest refined pleasures, and control desires. People should act so they are not slaves to pleasure and should feel detachment while enjoying pleasure. Educated people need no laws or morals as guides but enjoy what is available without needing anything else.
The highest good is a cheerful frame of mind, leading to friendship, family, and society, which have little pain. Momentary and bodily pleasures have future pain. Religion interferes with pleasure and is ancestor and hero worship. Responsibility for others and community is not important.
She lived -340 to ?. Her husband was Crates the Cynic.
His wife was Hipparchia. Luxury, pride, and ill will are bad.
He lived -334 to -262 and founded Stoicism [-310]. People either have reason and virtue or do not {absolutism}. Politics and laws should be the same for all.
Epicurus founded school that developed from Cyrenaic School and included Hermarchus, Polystratus, Metrodorus, Zeno of Sidon, Phaedrus, Apollodorus, Siro, Philodemus, Amafinius, Lucretius, and Colotes. Epicureans lived in communities including slaves, women, and poor.
Epistemology
Concept contents come from perception persistence. Concepts are perception images. Language is material substance that participates in images. Imagination unites images.
Perception contents are the same, so people have same basic ideas. Memory, prediction, hypothesis, or perception clearness and vividness make a criterion for truth. If two clear perceptions exist, two causes exist.
Opinions depend on both concepts and consequences, so perceptions can only refute them.
Ethics
The highest good is pleasure, which comes only from senses. Freedom from all desires, and thus from their pains, is best, because then pleasure is permanent and restful. People should avoid pain, fear, and injury from others. Absence of anxiety and fear {ataraxia, Epicurus} and absence of pain are the highest pleasures. Both together make the objectively good life {eudaimonia, Epicurus}, not just subjectively good or happy.
Active pleasure is desire satisfaction. Passive pleasure is satiation or well-being state, which has no pain and no desire.
Wants can be natural and unavoidable, so people should find as much satisfaction as possible in them. Wants can be artificial, and society can cause wants, so people should avoid them. Most wants are in-between. People need knowledge and insight to judge pleasure and pain and to renounce them if they do not give satisfaction or have too much pain. People should satisfy such wants as much as possible to gain more pleasure.
Mental pleasures, such as beauty and friendship, are better, because people can control them and they are more restful.
Prudent pursuit of pleasure, beauty, and culture is the ideal. Actions should have nobility and morals.
Social duty and responsibility are not important. Individual morals are best.
Immortality does not exist. Religion is not good, because gods do not care about people. Religion and immortality cause fear.
Metaphysics
Atoms are independent and controlled only by themselves. All events are mechanical. Events have no law, necessity, or purpose. Uncaused actions can happen. Because time is infinite, all possible atom combinations have already happened and will repeat again. God and magic do not exist.
Mind
Soul has fire-atoms that scatter from body at death, precluding immortality.
Politics
Societies form only to gain advantage or utility. States are agreements among people not to injure each other.
People's advantage determines laws, not ideas about right and wrong.
He was second Epicurean-School leader [-270 to -250].
He lived ? to -240 and was third Epicurean-School leader [-250 to -240].
He lived -185 to -108 and was Stoic and Syncretist. Scipio the Younger was his pupil. People should become more active and virtuous, depending on personality.
School incorporated Neo-Platonism, Jewish philosophy, and religious ideas from Iran. It included Aristobolus and Philo of Alexandria.
He lived -110 to -35 and was Epicurean.
He lived -106 to -43 and defended Sextus Roscius against the state [-80]. He defended people of Sicily against the governor [-51]. He was praetor [-66] and consul [-63]. He first emphasized intention, as well as actual act. He first distinguished between damages and penalties.
Natural law is universal, because it depends on reason, which is inherent in all people equally. Actual laws depend on history and natural law.
Epistemology
Ideas can be innate in reason, which people need only remember.
Psychology
People have right to take part in conversations. Conversation with monarchs should be mainly information, flattery, or respectful silence. People should use witticisms only in conversations with equals.
He was Epicurean.
He lived -85 to -43 and was Epicurean.
Eastern religions fused with Greek philosophies. Neo-Pythagorean at Alexandria, Eclectic Platonism, Jewish philosophy, Patristic philosophy, Gnosticism, and Neo-Platonism developed. God gives divine knowledge to prophets, leaders, and saints. Divine knowledge explains history. Divine knowledge authorizes state and church.
School included Demonax.
School included Eudorus, Arius Didymus, Albinus, Thrasyllus, Plutarch the Elder, Maximus, Apuleius, Celsus, Galen, Hermes Trismegistus, Nichomachus, and Numenius of Apamea.
He lived -20 to 50, was Neo-Platonist, commented on Bible, and unified Jewish and Greek philosophy.
Epistemology
Religious-writing literal meaning is for senses. Philosophical meaning is for mind. To understand, people must be passive in reason, senses, and activity, so divine spirit can enter. People can achieve ecstasy {mysticism}, in which miracles and prophecies are possible. In this state, people know, not just desire to know. People can prepare for this state, and be worthy of it, through love, truth, faith, prayer, and suppression of will and senses. However, this state is gift from God. People must renounce self and merge with God to know logos and so God. Logos is immanent, and people can know it. God is transcendent, and people cannot know it.
Metaphysics
God is perfect. Matter is imperfect. Life principle, divine reason, or spirit of God {logos, spirit} is intelligent, immanent, transcendent, and divine. Logos is powers and attributes of God and is how God acts on nature. Logos makes and unifies all matter. Logos is Thought. Logos is immanent in all things, while God is transcendent.
Intelligence {logos spermatikos} generates everything. Intermediate connecting forces are angels and servants of God and link God and material world. Angels have personality and connect to God by logos. Angels are also material.
He lived -4 to 29. The philosophy of Jesus is in the four gospels of King James Bible.
Matthew 5:38-42
"Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth:
But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also.
And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also.
And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain.
Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away."
Luke 6:29-30
"And unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other; and him that taketh away thy cloak forbid not to take thy coat also.
Give to every man that asketh of thee; and of him that taketh away thy goods ask them not again."
Matthew 5:43-44
"Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy.
But I say unto you, Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, ..."
Luke 6:27-28
"But I say unto you which hear, Love your enemies, do good to them which hate you,
Bless them that curse you, ..."
Luke 6:32-36
"For if ye love them which love you, what thank have ye? ...
And if ye do good to them which do good to you, what thank have ye? ...
And if ye lend to them of whom ye hope to receive, what thank have ye? ...
But love ye your enemies, and do good, and lend, hoping for nothing again; and your reward shall be great, ...
Be ye therefore merciful, ..."
Matthew 6:14
"... forgive men their trespasses ..."
Matthew 18:21-22
"Then came Peter to him, and said, Lord, how oft shall my brother sin against me, and I forgive him? till seven times?
Jesus saith unto him, I say not unto thee, Until seven times: but, Until seventy times seven."
John 8:7
"... He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone ..."
Matthew 6:19
"Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon Earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal"
Matthew 19:21
"... If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor ..."
Mark 10:21
"... go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hast, and give to the poor ..."
Luke 18:22
"... sell all that thou hast, and distribute unto the poor, ..."
Matthew 7:1-2
"Judge not, that ye be not judged.
For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be judged: and with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again."
Luke 6:37-38
"Judge not, and ye shall not be judged: condemn not, and ye shall not be condemned: forgive, and ye shall be forgiven:
Give, and it shall be given unto you; good measure, pressed down, and shaken together, and running over, shall men give into your bosom. For with the same measure that ye mete withal it shall be measured to you again."
Matthew 7:3-5
"And why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, but considerest not the beam that is in thine own eye?
Or how wilt thou say to thy brother, Let me pull out the mote out of thine eye; and, behold, a beam is in thine own eye?
Thou hypocrite, first cast out the beam out of thine own eye; and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote out of thy brother's eye."
Luke 6:41-42
"And why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, but perceivest not the beam that is in thine own eye?
Either how canst thou say to thy brother, Brother, let me pull out the mote that is in thine eye, when thou thyself beholdest not the beam that is in thine own eye? Thou hypocrite, cast out first the beam out of thine own eye, and then shalt thou see clearly to pull out the mote that is in thy brother's eye."
Matthew 7:12
"Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them ..."
Luke 6:31
"And as ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise."
Matthew 7:17-20
"Even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit; but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit.
A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit.
Every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit is hewn down, and cast into the fire.
Wherefore by their fruits ye shall know them."
Luke 6:43-44
"For a good tree bringeth not forth corrupt fruit; neither doth a corrupt tree bring forth good fruit.
For every tree is known by his own fruit. For of thorns men do not gather figs, nor of a bramble bush gather they grapes."
Matthew 12:35
"A good man out of the good treasure of the heart bringeth forth good things: and an evil man out of the evil treasure bringeth forth evil things."
Luke 6:45
"A good man out of the good treasure of his heart bringeth forth that which is good; and an evil man out of the evil treasure of his heart bringeth forth that which is evil: for of the abundance of the heart his mouth speaketh."
Matthew 19:18-19
"... Thou shalt do no murder, Thou shalt not commit adultery, Thou shalt not steal, Thou shalt not bear false witness,
Honour thy father and thy mother: ..."
Mark 10:19
"... Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Defraud not, Honour thy father and mother."
Luke 18:20
"... Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Honour thy father and thy mother."
Matthew 19:19
"... Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."
Matthew 22:39
"... Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself."
Mark 12:31
"... Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. ..."
Luke 10:29-37
"... And who is my neighbour?
And Jesus answering said, A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho, and fell among thieves, which stripped him of his raiment, and wounded him, and departed, leaving him half dead.
And by chance there came down a certain priest that way: and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side.
And likewise a Levite, when he was at the place, came and looked on him, and passed by on the other side.
But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was: and when he saw him, he had compassion on him,
And went to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine, and set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him.
And on the morrow when he departed, he took out two pence, and gave them to the host, and said unto him, Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, when I come again, I will repay thee.
Which now of these three, thinkest thou, was neighbour unto him that fell among the thieves?
And he said, He that shewed mercy on him. Then said Jesus unto him, Go, and do thou likewise."
John 13:34
"A new commandment I give unto you, That ye love one another; ..."
John 15:12-13
"This is my commandment, That ye love one another, ...
Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends."
Matthew 20:26-27
"... whosoever will be great among you, let him be your minister;
And whosoever will be chief among you, let him be your servant"
Mark 10:43-44
"... whosoever will be great among you, shall be your minister:
And whosoever of you will be the chiefest, shall be servant of all."
John 1:1
"In the beginning was the Word ..."
John 8:32
"And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free."
School included Seneca, Cornutus or Phurnutus, Dio Chrysostom, Persius, Thrasea, Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, Demonax, Arrian, Lucian, Favorinus, Aulus Gellius, and Marcus Aurelius.
He lived 55 to 135, was Stoic, and wrote about ethics. Philosophy should be about morals and mind. Body, status, and wealth are not important. People should control their emotions {apatheia}, so they can choose actions consistent with duty and citizenship. People should not let life affect them so that they cannot act.
School included John Chrysostom, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzen, and Gregory of Nyassa.
School included Dionysius the Areopagite, Maximus the Confessor, Justin Martyr, Clement I of Rome, Aristides, Athenogoras, Theophilus, Melito, Apollinaris, Minucius Felix, Epiphanius, Lactantius, Irenaeus in Lyon, Hippolytus in Rome, Tatian, Aeneas of Gaza, Tertullian in Carthage, Arnobius, Hilarius, Clement of Alexandria, Nemesius, Eusebius, Origen, Cappadocians, and Paul, the Roman Catholic saint. Hippolytus set himself up as pope.
Epistemology
God inspired every word of the Bible, as shown by prophecy fulfillment. The succession of Bible prophets is a divine plan for people's education. God reveals more as people's ability to receive knowledge increases. New revelations are purer. Jesus is the final revelation.
People can immediately apprehend truth. Powers above reason give truth. Truth comes directly from God and comes through contact with God. Church doctrine is the only knowledge needed and people should believe it without question, because it is perfect truth. Revelation is above reason, because it is divine. Speculation or further reasoning about the Bible is having no faith.
Metaphysics
Matter is not good or evil. Matter can be for good or evil by people's actions.
Spirit combines rational thought and personality. It is consciousness. Spirit can be separate from body, can go to another body, is eternal, and is unchanging. Life-force mediates between spirit and matter and animates body.
Good and evil forces exist in the world. Evil comes from demons and the evil soul in man.
God created world from nothing in one moment, without cause except for God's willing, which is infinite and unchanging. God gave people free will and action control, which can lead to evil.
Pantheism opposes Church doctrine.
Mind
Conscience is knowledge of duty and action worth, relative to self and behavior. Self-consciousness gives people knowledge of sin and their need to repent.
History
History is a succession of revelations. Adam revealed nature's perfection and God's gift of mind. Moses revealed Jewish law. Jesus was the perfect revelation for which the previous two revelations had prepared people. The Comforter {Paraclete, Apologist}, who can be Holy Spirit, will reveal fourth revelation at world end. On judgment day, good will separate from evil, or all good will overcome all evil.
Humans are universe meaning and purpose and control universe destiny. This purpose and Church unify people.
History records how human will works relative to God and other people. Jesus is center of history.
Because free people take actions, history cannot repeat.
Previous gods are evil demons in the world.
Theology
God is spiritual personality. People can have personal relation with God, as with father. Because God and people are spirits, relations can exist between people and God, and one such relation is love.
He was Stoic.
He lived 323 to 389 and was Apologist. Later Byzantine writers referenced him.
He lived 330 to 379 and was Apologist. Later Byzantine writers referenced him.
He lived 335 to 395 and was Apologist. Later Byzantine writers referenced him.
He lived 347 to 407, was Patriarch of Constantinople [398 to 403], was Doctor of the Church and Greek Father, and was Apologist. Later Byzantine writers referenced him.
He lived 480 to 526, served under King Theodoric, was Neo-Platonist, and stressed Stoic morality. He wrote textbooks on four subjects {quadrivium}: geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. Events can be necessary or only conditionally necessary. God will punish vice. God is omnipotent and eternal. Eternity is simultaneous knowledge of all life.
He lived 571 to 632. The philosophy of Mohammed is in Koran, as translated into English by the Presidency of Islamic Researches, Ifta, Call and Guidance of Saudi Arabia.
2.83 ... treat with kindness your parents and kindred, and orphans and those in need; speak fair to the people; be steadfast in prayer; and give Zakat [regular charity] ...
2.84 ... Shed no blood amongst you, nor turn out your own people from your homes ...
2.148 ... then strive together (as in a race) towards all that is good. ...
2.168 ... Eat of what is on Earth, lawful and good ...
2.177 ... to spend of your substance, ... for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; ... and give Zakat; to fulfill the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. ...
2.178 ... the law of equality is prescribed to you in cases of murder: the free for the free, the slave for the slave, the woman for the woman. But if the brother of the slain makes any remission, then grant any reasonable demand, and compensate him with handsome gratitude, ...
2.180 ... when death approaches any of you, if he leave any goods that he make a bequest to parents and next of kin, according to reasonable usage; ...
2.181 If anyone changes the bequest after hearing it, the guilt shall be on those who make the change. ...
2.182 But if anyone fears partiality or wrong-doing on the part of the testator, and brings about a settlement amongst (the parties concerned), there is no wrong in him: ...
2.183 ... Fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may (learn) self-restraint,
2.184 for a fixed number of days; but if any of you is ill, or on a journey, observe the prescribed number within days later. For those who can do it (with hardship), is a ransom, the feeding of one that is indigent. But he that will give more, of his own free will, it is better for him. And it is better for you that ye fast, if ye only knew.
2.187 Permitted to you, on the night of the fasts, is the approach to your wives. They are your garments and ye are their garments. ... so now associate with them, ... and eat and drink, until the white thread of dawn appear to you distinct from its black thread; then complete your fast till the night appears; but do not associate with your wives while ye are in retreat in the mosques. ...
2.188 And do not eat up your property among yourselves for vanities, nor use it as bait for the judges, with intent that ye may eat up wrongfully and knowingly a little of (other) people's property.
2.189 They ask thee concerning the New Moons. Say: They are but signs to mark fixed periods of time in (the affairs of) men, and for Pilgrimage. It is no virtue if ye enter your houses from the back: ... Enter houses through the proper doors: ...
2.190 Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; ...
2.191 And slay them wherever ye catch them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out; for persecution and oppression are worse than slaughter; but fight them not at the Sacred Mosque, unless they (first) fight you there; but if they fight you, slay them. Such is the reward of those who suppress faith.
2.193 And fight them on until there is no more persecution or oppression, ... But if they cease. Let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression.
2.194 The prohibited month for the prohibited month, and so for all things prohibited, there is the law of equality. If then any one transgresses the prohibition against you, transgress ye likewise against him. ...
2.195 ... make not your own hands contribute to (your) destruction; but do good; ...
2.215 ... Whatever wealth ye spend that is good, is for parents and kindred and orphans and those in want and for wayfarers. ...
2.216 Fighting is prescribed for you, and ye dislike it. But it is possible that ye dislike a thing which is good for you, and that ye love a thing which is bad for you. ...
2.219 They ask thee concerning wine and gambling. Say: "In them is great sin, and some profit, for men; but the sin is greater than the profit." They ask thee how much they are to spend; Say: "What is beyond your needs." ...
2.220 ... They ask thee concerning orphans. Say: "The best thing to do is what is for their good; if ye mix their affairs with yours, they are your brethren; ..."
2.222 They ask thee concerning women's courses. Say: They are a hurt and a pollution: So keep away from women in their courses, and do not approach them until they are clean. But when they have purified themselves, ye may approach them ...
2.223 Your wives are as a tilth unto you; so approach your tilth when or how ye will; but do some good act for your souls beforehand; ...
2.228 Divorced women shall wait concerning themselves for three monthly periods. Nor is it lawful for them to hide what Allah Hath created in their wombs, if they have faith in Allah and the Last Day. And their husbands have the better right to take them back in that period, if they wish for reconciliation. And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them, according to what is equitable; but men have a degree (of advantage) over them. ...
2.229 A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties should either hold together on equitable terms, or separate with kindness. It is not lawful for you, (men), to take back any of your gifts (from your wives), except when both parties fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah. If ye (judges) do indeed fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah, there is no blame on either of them if she give something for her freedom. ...
2.230 So if a husband divorces his wife (irrevocably), he cannot, after that, remarry her until after she has married another husband and he has divorced her. In that case there is no blame on either of them if they reunite, provided they feel that they can keep the limits ordained by Allah. ...
2.231 When ye divorce women, and they (are about to) fulfill the term of their (iddah), either take them back on equitable terms or set them free on equitable terms; but do not take them back to injure them, (or) to take undue advantage; if any one does that; he wrongs his own soul. ...
2.232 When ye divorce women, and they fulfill the term of their (iddah), do not prevent them from marrying their (former) husbands, if they mutually agree on equitable terms. ...
2.233 The mothers shall give suck to their offspring for two whole years, for him (the father) who desires to complete the term. But he shall bear the cost of their food and clothing on equitable terms. No soul shall have a burden laid on it greater than it can bear. No mother shall be treated unfairly on account of her child. Nor father on account of his child, an heir shall be chargeable in the same way. If they both decide on weaning, by mutual consent, and after due consultation, there is no blame on them. If ye decide on a foster-mother for your offspring, there is no blame on you, provided ye pay (the foster mother) what ye offered, on equitable terms. ...
2.234 If any of you die and leave widows behind, they shall wait concerning themselves four months and ten days: When they have fulfilled their term, there is no blame on you if they dispose of themselves in a just and reasonable manner. ...
2.235 There is no blame on you if ye make an indirect offer of betrothal or hold it in your hearts. Allah knows that ye cherish them in your hearts: But do not make a secret contract with them except in terms honorable, nor resolve on the tie of marriage till the term prescribed is fulfilled. ...
2.236 There is no blame on you if ye divorce women before consummation or the fixation of their dower; but bestow on them (A suitable gift), the wealthy according to his means, and the poor according to his means; a gift of a reasonable amount is due from those who wish to do the right thing.
2.237 And if ye divorce them before consummation, but after the fixation of a dower for them, then the half of the dower (is due to them), unless they remit it or (the man's half) is remitted by him in whose hands is the marriage tie; and the remission (of the man's half) is the nearest to righteousness. And do not forget liberality between yourselves. ...
2.240 Those of you who die and leave widows should bequeath for their widows a year's maintenance and residence; but if they leave (the residence), there is no blame on you for what they do with themselves, provided it is reasonable. ...
2.241 For divorced women maintenance (should be provided) on a reasonable (scale). This is a duty on the righteous.
2.256 Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error: whoever rejects Taghut (evil) and believes in Allah hath grasped the most trustworthy hand-hold, that never breaks. ...
2.263 Kind words and the covering of faults are better than charity followed by injury. ...
2.264 ... cancel not your charity by reminders of your generosity or by injury, like those who spend their wealth to be seen of men, ... They are in parable like a hard, barren rock, on which is a little soil: on it falls heavy rain, which leaves it (just) a bare stone. They will be able to do nothing with aught they have earned. ...
2.267 ... Give of the good things which ye have (honorably) earned, and of the fruits of the earth which We have produced for you, and do not even aim at getting anything which is bad, in order that out of it ye may give away something, when ye yourselves would not receive it except with closed eyes. ...
2.271 If ye disclose (acts of) charity, even so it is well, but if ye conceal them, and make them reach those (really) in need, that is best for you: It will remove from you some of your (stains of) evil. ...
2.274 Those who (in charity) spend of their goods by night and by day, in secret and in public, have their reward ... on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.
2.280 If the debtor is in a difficulty, grant him time till it is easy for him to repay. But if ye remit it by way of charity, that is best for you if ye only knew.
2.282 ... When ye deal with each other, in transactions involving future obligations in a fixed period of time, reduce them to writing. Let a scribe write down faithfully as between the parties: let not the scribe refuse to write: ... Let him who incurs the liability dictate, ... and not diminish aught of what he owes. If the party liable is mentally deficient, or weak, or unable himself to dictate, let his guardian dictate faithfully. And get two witnesses, out of your own men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women, such as ye choose, for witnesses, so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her. The witnesses should not refuse when called on (for evidence). Disdain not to reduce to writing (your contract) for a future period, whether it be small or big; ... but if it be a transaction which ye carry out on the spot among yourselves, there is no blame on you if ye reduce it not to writing. But take witness whenever ye make a commercial contract; and let neither scribe nor witness suffer harm. ...
2.283 If ye are on a journey, and cannot find a scribe, a pledge with possession (may serve the purpose). And if one of you deposits a thing on trust with another, Let the trustee (faithfully) discharge his trust, ... Conceal not evidence; for whoever conceals it, His heart is tainted with sin. ...
3.17 Those who show patience (firmness and self-control); who are true (in word and deed); who worship devoutly; ... and who pray for forgiveness in the early hours of the morning.
4.2 To orphans restore their property (when they reach their age), nor substitute (your) worthless things for (their) good ones; and devour not their substance (by mixing it up) with your own. ...
4.3 If ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, marry women of your choice, two or three or four; but if ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one, or (a captive) that your right hands possess, that will be more suitable ...
4.4 And give the women (on marriage) their dower as a free gift; but if they, of their own good pleasure, remit any part of it to you, take it and enjoy it with right good cheer.
4.5 To those weak of understanding give not your property ...but feed and clothe them therewith, and speak to them words of kindness and justice.
4.6 Make trial of orphans until they reach the age of marriage; if then ye find sound judgment in them, release their property to them; but consume it not wastefully, nor in haste against their growing up. If the guardian is well-off, let him claim no remuneration, but if he is poor, let him have for himself what is just and reasonable. When ye release their property to them, take witnesses in their presence: ...
4.7 From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large, a determinate share.
4.8 But if at the time of division other relatives, or orphans or poor, are present, give them out of the (property), and speak to them words of kindness and justice.
4.9 Let those (disposing of an estate) have the same fear in their minds as they would have for their own if they had left a helpless family behind: ... and speak words of appropriate (comfort).
4.11 ... as regards your children's (inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth.
The distribution in all cases is after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. ...
4.12 In what your wives leave, your share is a half, if they leave no child; but if they leave a child, ye get a fourth; after payment of legacies and debts. In what ye leave, their share is a fourth, if ye leave no child; but if ye leave a child, they get an eighth; after payment of legacies and debts. If the man or woman whose inheritance is in question, has left neither ascendants nor descendants, but has left a brother or a sister, each one of the two gets a sixth; but if more than two, they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is caused (to any one). ...
4.15 If any of your women are guilty of lewdness, take the evidence of four (reliable) witnesses from amongst you against them; and if they testify, confine them to houses until death do claim them, ...
4.16 If two men among you are guilty of lewdness, punish them both. If they repent and amend, leave them alone; ...
4.19 ... Ye are forbidden to inherit women against their will. Nor should ye treat them with harshness, that ye may take away part of the dower ye have given them, except where they have been guilty of open lewdness; on the contrary live with them on a footing of kindness and equity. If ye take a dislike to them it may be that ye dislike a thing, ...
4.20 But if ye decide to take one wife in place of another, even if ye had given the latter a whole treasure for dower, take not the least bit of it back: Would ye take it by slander and manifest wrong?
4.21 And how could ye take it when ye have gone in unto each other, and they have Taken from you a solemn covenant?
4.22 And marry not women whom your fathers married, except what is past: It was shameful and odious, an abominable custom indeed.
4.23 Prohibited to you (for marriage) are: your mothers, daughters, sisters; father's sisters, mother's sisters; brother's daughters, sister's daughters; foster-mothers who gave you suck, foster-sisters; your wives' mothers; your step-daughters under your guardianship, born of your wives to whom ye have gone in, no prohibition if ye have not gone in; (those who have been) wives of your sons proceeding from your loins; and two sisters in wedlock at one and the same time, except for what is past; ...
4.24 Also (prohibited are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess: ... Except for these, all others are lawful, provided ye seek (them in marriage) with gifts from your property, desiring chastity, not fornication from them. Give them their dowers (at least) as prescribed; but if, after a dower is prescribed, agree Mutually (to vary it), there is no blame on you, ...
4.25 If any of you have not the means wherewith to wed free believing women, they may wed believing girls from among those whom your right hands possess: ... Ye are one from another: Wed them with the leave of their owners, and give them their dowers, according to what is reasonable: They should be chaste, not lustful, nor taking paramours: when they are taken in wedlock, if they fall into shame, their punishment is half that for free women. This (permission) is for those among you who fear sin; but it is better for you that ye practice self-restraint. ...
4.29 ... Eat not up your property among yourselves in vanities: But let there be amongst you traffic and trade by mutual good-will: Nor kill (or destroy) yourselves: ...
4.32 And in no wise covet those things in which Allah Hath bestowed His gifts more freely on some of you than on others: to men is allotted what they earn, and to women what they earn: ...
4.33 To (benefit) every one, We have appointed shares and heirs to property left by parents and relatives. To those, also, to whom your right hand was pledged, give their due portion. ...
4.34 Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband's) absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (next), refuse to share their beds, (and last) beat them (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them means (of annoyance): ...
4.35 If ye fear a breach between them twain, appoint (two) arbiters, one from his family, and the other from hers; ...
4.36 ... and do good, to parents, kinsfolk, orphans, those in need, neighbors who are of kin, neighbors who are strangers, the companion by your side, the wayfarer (ye meet), and what your right hands possess: ...
5.1 ... fulfill (all) obligations. Lawful unto you (for food) are all beasts of cattle, with the exceptions named: But animals of the chase are forbidden while ye are in the sacred precincts or in the state of pilgrimage: ...
5.3 Forbidden to you (for food) are: dead meat, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which hath been invoked the name of other than Allah; that which hath been killed by strangling, or by a violent blow, or by a headlong fall, or by being gored to death; that which hath been (partly) eaten by a wild animal; unless ye are able to slaughter it (in due form); that which is sacrificed on stone (altars); (forbidden) also is the division (of meat) by raffling with arrows: that is impiety. ... But if any is forced by hunger, with no inclination to transgression ...
5.4 They ask thee what is lawful to them (as food). Say: Lawful unto you are (all) things good and pure: and what ye have taught your trained hunting animals (to catch) ...
5.5 This day are (all) things good and pure made lawful unto you. The food of the People of the Book is lawful unto you and yours is lawful unto them. (Lawful unto you in marriage) are (not only) chaste women who are believers, but chaste women among the People of the Book, revealed before your time, when ye give them their due dowers, and desire chastity, not lewdness, nor secret intrigues. ...
5.8 ... as witnesses to fair dealing, and let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just: that is next to piety: ...
5.32 ... if any one slew a person, unless it be for murder or for spreading mischief in the land, it would be as if he slew the whole people: and if any one saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people. ...
5.38 As to the thief, male or female, cut off his or her hands: a retribution for their deeds, and exemplary punishment ...
5.45 ... "Life for life, eye for eye, nose or nose, ear for ear, tooth for tooth, and wounds equal for equal." But if any one remits the retaliation by way of charity, it is an act of atonement for himself. ...
7.31 ... eat and drink: But waste not by excess ...
8.41 And know that out of all the booty that ye may acquire (in war), a fifth share is assigned to Allah, and to the Messenger, and to near relatives, orphans, the needy, and the wayfarer ...
8.61 But if the enemy incline towards peace, do thou (also) incline towards peace, ...
8.69 But (now) enjoy what ye took in war, lawful and good: ...
9.4 (But the treaties are) not dissolved with those Pagans with whom ye have entered into alliance and who have not subsequently failed you in aught, nor aided any one against you. So fulfill your engagements with them to the end of their term: ...
9.7 ... As long as these stand true to you, stand ye true to them: ...
10.36 But most of them follow nothing but conjecture: truly conjecture can be of no avail against Truth. ...
11.11 Not so do those who show patience and constancy, and work righteousness; ...
16.71 And Allah has made for you mates (and companions) of your own nature, and made for you, out of them, sons and daughters and grandchildren, and provided for you sustenance of the best: ...
17.23 ... and that ye be kind to parents. Whether one or both of them attain old age in thy life, say not to them a word of contempt, nor repel them, but address them in terms of honor.
17.24 And, out of kindness, lower to them the wing of humility, and say: "My Lord! bestow on them Thy Mercy even as they cherished me in childhood."
17.26 And render to the kindred their due rights, as (also) to those in want, and to the wayfarer: But squander not (your wealth) in the manner of a spendthrift.
17.31 Kill not your children for fear of want: We shall provide sustenance for them as well as for you. Verily the killing of them is a great sin.
17.32 Nor come nigh to adultery: for it is an indecent (deed) and an evil way.
17.33 Nor take life ... except for just cause. And if anyone is slain wrongfully, we have given his heir authority (to demand Qisás or to forgive): but let him nor exceed bounds in the matter of taking life; for he is helped (by the Law).
17.34 Come not nigh to the orphan's property except to improve it, until he attains the age of full strength; and fulfill (every) engagement, ...
17.35 Give full measure when ye measure, and weigh with a balance that is straight: ...
17.36 And pursue not that of which thou hast no knowledge; ...
17.37 Nor walk on the earth with insolence: for thou canst not rend the earth asunder, nor reach the mountains in height.
18.23 Nor say of anything, "I shall be sure to do so and so tomorrow."
22.39 To those against whom war is made, permission is given (to fight), because they are wronged; ...
22.60 ... And if one has retaliated to no greater extent than the injury he received, and is again set upon inordinately, Allah will help him: ...
23.3 Who avoid vain talk;
23.4 Who are active in giving Zakat;
23.5 Who guard their modesty,
23.6 Except with those joined to them in the marriage bond, or (the captives) whom their right hands possess, for (in their case) they are free from blame,
23.7 But those whose desires exceed those limits are transgressors;
23.8 Those who faithfully observe their trusts and their covenants,
24.2 The woman and the man guilty of fornication, flog each of them with a hundred stripes. Let not compassion move you in their case, ...
24.3 The adulterer cannot have sexual relations with any but an adulteress, or idolatress. And the adulteress, none can have sexual relations with her but an adulterer or an idolater: ...
24.4 And those who launch a charge against chaste women, and produce not four witnesses (to support their allegations), flog them with eighty stripes; and reject their evidence ever after: for such men are wicked transgressors;
24.6 And for those who launch a charge against their wives, and have (in support) no evidence but their own, let one of them testify four times by Allah that he is of those who speak the truth;
24.7 And the fifth (oath) (should be) that he solemnly invoke the curse of Allah on himself if he tell a lie.
24.8 But it would avert the punishment from the wife, if she bears witness four times (with an oath) By Allah, that (her husband) is telling a lie;
24.9 And the fifth (oath) should be that she solemnly invokes the wrath of Allah on herself if (her accuser) is telling the truth.
24.22 Let not those among you who are endued with grace and amplitude of means resolve by oath against helping their kinsmen, those in want, and those who have left their homes in Allah's cause: let them forgive and overlook, ...
24.23 Those who slander chaste, indiscreet, and believing women, are cursed in this life ...
24.26 Women impure are for men impure, and men impure for women impure and women of purity are for men of purity, and men of purity are for women of purity: these are innocent of all what people say: for them there is forgiveness, and a provision honorable.
24.27 ... Enter not houses other than your own, until ye have asked permission and saluted those in them: ...
24.28 If ye find no one in the house, enter not until permission is given to you: if ye are asked to go back, go back: ...
24.29 It is no fault on your part to enter houses not lived in, which serve some (other) use for you: ...
24.30 Say to the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty: ...
24.31 And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers, their husband's fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male attendants free of sexual desires, or small children who have no carnal of women; and that they should not strike their feet to draw attention to their hidden ornaments. ...
24.32 Marry those among you who are single, or the virtuous ones among yourselves, male or female: ...
24.33 Let those who find not the wherewithal for marriage keep themselves chaste, ... And if any of your slaves ask for a deed in writing (for emancipation), give them such a deed if ye know any good in them: yea, give them something yourselves ... But force not your maids to prostitution when they desire chastity, in order that ye may make a gain in the goods of this life. ...
24.58 ... Let those whom your right hands possess, and the (children) among you who have not come of age ask your permission (before they come to your presence), on three occasions: before morning prayer; the while ye doff your clothes for the noonday heat; and after the late-night prayer: these are your three times of undress: outside those times it is not wrong for you or for them to move about attending to each other. ...
24.59 But when the children among you come of age, let them (also) ask for permission, as do those senior to them (in age). ...
25.67 Those who, when they spend, are not extravagant and not niggardly, but hold a just (balance) between those (extremes);
25.68 ... nor slay such life as Allah has made sacred except for just cause, nor commit fornication; ...
25.72 Those who witness no falsehood, and, if they pass by futility, they pass by it with honorable (avoidance);
28.55 And when they hear vain talk, they turn away therefrom and say: "To us our deeds, and to you yours; peace be to you: we seek not the ignorant."
28.56 It is true thou wilt not be able to guide every one whom thou lovest; ...
28.77 ... nor forget thy portion in this world: but do thou good, ... and seek not (occasions for) mischief in the land: ...
29.8 We have enjoined on man kindness to parents: ...
29.29 "Do ye indeed approach men, and cut off the highway? and practice wickedness (even) in your councils?" ...
30.38 So give what is due to kindred, the needy, and the wayfarer. ...
30.39 That which you give in usury for increase through the property of (other) people, will have no increase ... but that which you give for charity, ... (will increase) ...
31.14 ... (to be good) to his parents: in travail upon travail did his mother bear him, and in years twain was his weaning: ... "Show gratitude ... to thy parents: "...
31.17 ... establish regular prayer, enjoin what is just, and forbid what is wrong: and bear with patient constancy whatever betide thee; for this is firmness (of purpose) in (the conduct of) affairs.
31.18 "And swell not thy cheek (for pride) at men, nor walk in insolence through the earth; "...
31.19 "And be moderate in thy pace, and lower thy voice; for the harshest of sounds without doubt is the braying of the ass."
32.15 ... nor are they (ever) puffed up with pride.
32.16 ... and they spend (in charity) out of the sustenance which We have bestowed on them. ...
33.6 ... nevertheless do ye what is just to your closest friends: ...
33.32 ... be not too complacent of speech, lest one in whose heart is a disease should feel desire: but speak ye a speech (that is) just.
33.33 And stay quietly in your houses, and make not a dazzling display, like that of the former Times of Ignorance; ... and give Zakat; ...
33.49 ... When ye marry believing women, and then divorce them before ye have touched them, no period of iddah have ye to count in respect of them: so give them a present, and release them in a handsome manner.
33.50 ... We have made lawful to thee thy wives to whom thou hast paid their dowers; and those whom thy right hand possesses out of the captives of war whom Allah has assigned to thee; and daughters of thy paternal uncles and aunts, and daughters of thy maternal uncles and aunts, who migrated (from Makkah) with thee; and any believing woman who gives herself to the Prophet if the Prophet wishes to wed her; this only for thee, and not for the Believers (at large); We know what We have appointed for them as to their wives and the captives whom their right hands possess; in order that there should be no difficulty for thee. ...
33.51 Thou mayest defer (the turn of) any of them that thou pleasest, and thou mayest receive any thou pleasest: and there is no blame on thee if thou invite one whose (turn) thou hadst set aside. This were nigher to the cooling of their eyes, the prevention of their grief, and their satisfaction, that of all of them, with that which thou hast to give them: ...
33.52 It is not lawful for thee (to marry more) women after this, nor to change them for (other) wives, even though their beauty attract thee, except any thy right hand should possess (as handmaidens): ...
33.55 There is no blame (on these ladies if they appear) before their fathers or their sons, their brothers, or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or the (slaves) whom their right hands possess. ...
33.59 ... Tell thy wives and daughters, and the believing women, that they should cast their outer garments over their persons (when out of doors): that is most convenient, that they should be known (as such) and not molested. ...
38.26 ... so judge thou between men in truth (and justice): nor follow thou the lust (of thy heart), ...
41.34 Nor can Goodness and Evil be equal. Repel (Evil) with what is better: then will he between whom and thee was hatred become as it were thy friend and intimate!
41.35 And no one will be granted such goodness except those who exercise patience and self-restraint, none but persons of the greatest good fortune.
42.37 Those who avoid the greater sins and indecencies, and, when they are angry even then forgive;
42.38 ... who (conduct) their affairs by mutual Consultation; who spend out of what We bestow on them for Sustenance;
42.39 And those who, when an oppressive wrong is inflicted on them, (do not cower but) help and defend themselves.
42.40 The recompense for an injury is an injury equal thereto (in degree): but if a person forgives and makes reconciliation, his reward is due from Allah: ...
42.41 But indeed if any do help and defend himself after a wrong (done) to him, against such there is no cause of blame.
42.42 The blame is only against those who oppress men with wrong-doing and insolently transgress beyond bounds through the land, defying right and justice: ...
42.43 But indeed if any show patience and forgive, that would truly be an affair of great resolution.
47.4 Therefore, when ye meet the Unbelievers (in fight), smite at their necks; at length, when ye have thoroughly subdued them, bind (the captives) firmly: thereafter (is the time for) either generosity or ransom: until the war lays down its burdens. ...
48.17 No blame is there on the blind, nor is there blame on the lame, nor on one ill (if he joins not the war): ...
49.6 ... If a wicked person comes to you with any news, ascertain the truth, lest ye harm people unwittingly, and afterwards become full of repentance for what ye have done.
49.9 If two parties among the Believers fall into a fight, make ye peace between them: but if one of them transgresses beyond bounds against the other then fight ye (all) against the one that transgresses until it complies with the command of Allah; but if it complies then make peace between them with justice and be fair: ...
49.11 ... Let not some men among you laugh at others: it may be that the (latter) are better than the (former): nor let some women laugh at others: it may be that the (latter are better than the former): nor defame nor be sarcastic to each other, nor call each other by (offensive) nicknames: Ill-seeming is a name connoting wickedness, (used of one) after he has believed: and those who do not desist are (indeed) doing wrong.
49.12 ... Avoid suspicion as much (as possible): for suspicion in some cases is a sin: and spy not on each other, nor speak ill of each other behind their backs. ...
51.17 They were in the habit of sleeping but little by night,
51.19 And in their wealth there is a due share for the beggar and the deprived.
53.32 ... Therefore justify not yourselves: ...
57.18 For those who give in Charity, men and women, ... it shall increase manifold (to their credit), and they shall have (besides) a generous reward.
57.20 Know ye (all), that the life of this world is but play and pastime, adornment and mutual boasting and multiplying, (in rivalry) among yourselves, riches and children. Here is a similitude: how rain and the growth which it brings forth, delight (the hearts of) the tillers; soon it withers; thou wilt see it grow yellow; then it becomes dry and crumbles away. ... And what is the life of this world, but goods and chattels of deception?
57.23 In order that ye may not despair over matters that pass you by, nor exult over favors bestowed upon you. ...
58.2 If any men among you divorce their wives by Zihár (calling them mothers), they cannot be their mothers: None can be their mothers except those who gave them birth. ...
58.3 But those who pronounce the word Zihár to their wives, then wish to go back on the words they uttered, (it is ordained that such a one) should free a slave before they touch each other: thus are ye admonished to perform: ...
58.4 And if any has not (the means), he should fast for two months consecutively before they touch each other. But if any is unable to do so, he should feed sixty indigent ones, ...
60.8 Allah forbids you not, with regard to those who fight you not for (your) Faith nor drive you out of your homes, from dealing kindly and justly with them: ...
60.9 Allah only forbids you, with regard to those who fight you for (your) Faith, and drive you out of your homes, and support (others) in driving you out, from turning to them (for friendship and protection). It is such as turn to them (in these circumstances), that do wrong.
60.10 ... When there come to you believing women refugees, examine (and test) them: ... if ye ascertain that they are Believers, then send them not back to the Unbelievers. They are not lawful (wives) for the Unbelievers, nor are the (Unbelievers) lawful (husbands) for them. But pay the Unbelievers what they have spent (on their dower), and there will be no blame on you if ye marry them on payment of their dower to them. But hold not to the ties (marriage contract) of unbelieving women: ask for what ye have spent on their dowers, and let the (Unbelievers) ask for what they have spent (on the dowers of women who come over to you). ...
60.11 And if any of your wives deserts you to the Unbelievers, and ye have your turn (by the coming over of a woman from the other side), then pay to those whose wives have deserted the equivalent of what they had spent (on their dower). ...
60.12 ... When believing women come to thee to take the oath of fealty to thee, that they will not associate in worship any other thing whatever with Allah, that they will not steal, that they will not commit adultery (or fornication), that they will not kill their children, that they will not utter slander, intentionally forging falsehood, and that they will not disobey thee in any just matter, then do thou receive their fealty, ...
63.10 And spend something (in charity) out of the substance which We have bestowed on you, before Death should come to any of you ...
65.1 ... When ye do divorce women, divorce them at their prescribed periods, and count (accurately), their prescribed periods: ... and turn them not out of their houses, nor shall they (themselves) leave, except in case they are guilty of some open lewdness, ...
65.2 Thus when they fulfill their term appointed, either take them back on equitable terms or part with them on equitable terms; and take for witness two persons from among you, endued with justice, and establish the evidence ...
65.4 Such of your women as have passed the age of monthly courses, for them the prescribed period, if ye have any doubts, is three months, and for those who have no courses (it is the same): for those who are pregnant, their period is until they deliver their burdens: ...
65.6 Let the women live (in iddah) in the same style as ye live, according to your means: annoy them not, so as to restrict them. And if they are pregnant, then spend (your substance) on them until they deliver their burden: and if they suckle your (offspring), give them their recompense: and take mutual counsel together, according to what is just and reasonable. And if ye find yourselves in difficulties, let another woman suckle (the child) on the (father's) behalf.
65.7 Let the man of means spend according to his means: and the man whose resources are restricted, let him spend according to what Allah has given him. ...
66.5 It may be, if he divorced you (all), that Allah will give him in exchange consorts better than you, who submit (their wills), who believe, who are devout, ... who fast, previously married or virgins.
70.24 And those in whose wealth is a recognized right.
70.25 For the (needy) who asks and him who is deprived (for some reason from asking);
70.29 And those who guard their chastity,
70.30 Except with their wives and the (captives) whom their right hands possess, for (then) they are not to be blamed,
70.32 And those who respect their trusts and covenants;
70.33 And those who stand firm in their testimonies;
76.7 They perform (their) vows, ...
76.8 And they feed, ... the indigent, the orphan, and the captive,
81.8 When the female (infant), buried alive, is questioned,
81.9 For what crime she was killed;
83.1 Woe to those that deal in fraud,
83.2 Those who, when they have to receive by measure from men, exact full measure,
83.3 But when they have to give by measure or weight to men, give less than due.
89.17 Nay, nay! but ye honor not the orphans!
89.18 Nor do ye encourage one another to feed the poor!
89.19 And ye devour inheritance, all with greed,
89.20 And ye love wealth with inordinate love!
90.12 And what will explain to thee the path that is steep?
90.13 (It is) freeing the bondman;
90.14 Or the giving of food in a day of privation
90.15 To the orphan with claims of relationship,
90.16 Or to the indigent (down) in the dust.
90.17 Then will he be of those who believe, and enjoin patience, constancy, and self-restraint, and enjoin deeds of kindness and compassion.
92.18 Those who spend their wealth for increase in self-purification,
92.19 And have in their minds no favor from anyone for which a reward is expected in return,
93.9 Therefore, treat not the orphan with harshness,
93.10 Nor repulse him who asks;
104.1 Woe to every (kind of) scandal-monger and backbiter,
104.2 Who pileth up wealth and layeth it by,
107.2 Then such is the (one) who repulses the orphan,
107.3 And encourages not the feeding of the indigent.
He lived 673 to 735 and was historian and theologian.
Jewish and Arabian philosophy school included Saadia ben Joseph or Saddjah Fajjumi, Isaac Ismali, Avicebron or Ibn Gebirol, Levi ben Gerson, Moses Maimonides, and Ibn Pakuda. It developed natural, scientific, and universal religion, based on moral law and common ideas in Islam, Judaism, and Christianity.
He lived ? to 995.
School was Platonist and humanist and included Alain of Lille, Constantine the African, Gaunilon, Adelard of Bath, Bernhard of Chartres, William of Conches, Bernardus Silvestris, Thierry of Chartres, and Gilbert of Poitiers.
He lived 1135 to 1204 and developed Jewish philosophy. People have free choice because the knowledge that God has is not understandable by humans, though God knows the future.
He lived 1182 to 1226, founded Franciscan monastic order, and advocated the simple life. Little Flowers of St. Francis tell his stories. It is said that he preached to birds and tamed wolf by his gentleness.
School included Dominic of Spain, Roland of Cremona, Hugh of St. Cher, and Robert Kilwardby. Intellect knows the good in general and in particular. Will follows intellect, because it strives for good. To choose the good or best requires knowing all alternatives. If people can select alternatives, people will do it automatically. Individuals cannot exist independently but depend on whole.
He lived 1221 to 1274 and was Scholastic and Franciscan. He became Roman Catholic saint.
School included Roger Bacon and John Peckham.
Epistemology
People can study feelings, personalities, and social relations empirically.
People can know the good only by revelation, not reason.
Ethics
People are independent selves and Forms, with free will. Acts can be good if God so wills them.
Ideas arise deterministically, so no choice exists.
People can only love God.
Metaphysics
God's will has no limit, even from itself. God wills the good and that makes it good.
Reality is all individual things. All individual things are independent and have Form. Classes have countable numbers of members {principle of individuation} {individuation, Franciscan}. However, negatives of classes cannot be individual or countable. Body is matter, not essence.
Mind
People are independent selves and Forms. Will controls, and is independent of, intellect.
School included Petrarch or Francesco Petrarcha, Boccaccio, Nicolaus Cusanus or Nicholas of Cusa, Raymund of Sabunde, Desiderius Erasmus, and Charles de Bouelles. It opposed Scholasticism, Latin language, and emotionless thinking.
He lived 1288 to 1344 and developed Jewish philosophy.
He lived 1290 to 1349 and was against Pelagians, who believed that people's will was morally correct.
School included John Wycliffe or John Wyclif, John Huss, Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, and John Calvin.
He lived 1340 to 1412 and developed Jewish philosophy. Belief in God's commandments implies belief in God. Empty space is not contradictory.
He lived 1407 to 1457 and was Eclectic humanist. He opposed metaphysics as twisted language and opposed logic as only rhetoric. Good is pleasure of soul in heaven.
School included Luis de Molina, Francisco Suarez, Johannes Capreolus or John Capreolus, Antoninus, Dionysius the Carthusian, Domingo Banez, Domingo de Soto, Bartholomew Medina, Thomas de Vio or Cajetan, and Francis Silvester.
He lived 1444 to 1485 and was Aristotelian and humanist.
School had Catholic followers of Aristotle and included Ermolao Barbaro, Pietro Pomponazzi, Gasparo Contarini, Simon Porta, Julius Caesar Scaliger, Jean Fernel, Paduano Pomponazzi, Girolamo Cardano, and Cremonini.
He lived 1460 to 1520 and developed Jewish philosophy.
School included Philip Melancthon as Aristotelian, Martin Luther as Augustinian, John Calvin as Augustinian, and Ulrich Zwingli as neo-Platonist.
He lived 1466 to 1536, was Catholic and humanist, complained about Catholic Church problems, and was against Protestant Reformation. He edited Greek and Latin writings of early Christian writers, including New Testament. He attacked foolish thinking and abuse of people.
Epistemology
Reason and common sense are good.
Ethics
Young people should behave properly in society.
He lived 1478 to 1535 and was Catholic humanist. Freedom requires religious tolerance. Society's problems, especially property inequality, cause most wrongdoing. State interests are material, not spiritual. Society should organize, so community holds all property {communism, More}, with no classes. Citizens should be equal before the law. Punishments should not be severe.
He lived 1469 to 1527.
Politics
Government must maintain public order, because human nature is not noble or honest. Government must maintain itself to maintain order. State actions are justifiable if they are in ruler's interest, because people act to achieve their own interests. Means justify ends, to maintain public order.
State's goals are national independence, security, and well-ordered constitution. States need religion for social cohesion. Power is necessary to achieve state's purposes. However, no legitimate power source exists in states. Opinion, propaganda, virtue, and semblance of virtue can secure power and authority.
Liberty requires virtue in people. Personal rights in states should be commensurate with power. Rulers are better if there is no censorship. People have right to rule. People in states need power, to stabilize state through system of checks and balances. Tyrannies are bad.
He lived 1492 to 1540 and was humanist and Neoplatonist.
He lived 1494 to 1560, was Francis Vittoria's student, was in School of Salamanca, and was Thomist.
He lived 1527 to 1581, was Francis Vittoria's student, was Thomist, and was founder of Probabilism [1577]. People are free to perform other acts, rather than always conforming to moral law {probabilism}.
He lived 1518 to 1581. People can change the social agreement if sovereign rules against their interests.
He lived 1550 to 1600 and was Principal Thomist.
He lived 1535 to 1600, was Francis Vittoria's student, and was Thomist and Dominican. God gives grace and motivates acceptance of grace {praemotio physica}.
He lived 1535 to 1600 and was Thomist. God knows all results under all circumstances, actual and possible, and so determines circumstances. However, God does not control free will. Circumstances and will merely coincide.
Fausto Sozzini founded school. People should follow the moral laws of Moses and Jesus, with no dogma or metaphysics.
He lived 1570 to 1635 and developed Jewish philosophy.
School included Cornelius Jansenius and Pierre Huet.
He lived 1583 to 1648 and became baron [1629]. There are four kinds of truth: things as they exist {veritas rei}, things as they appear {veritas apparentiae}, concepts, and generally accepted concepts {veritas intellectus}. Rational religion aids society cohesion.
He lived 1589 to 1644 and was Thomist.
He lived 1568 to 1639 and was of Philosophy of Nature school. Highly regulated states with bureaucracies based on merit can make socialist societies. Technology and philosophy can control and create world.
He lived 1585 to 1638, was Catholic theologian, desired return to teachings of Augustine, and advocated strict ethics. He started Jansenism [1642]. To do good requires God's grace. Salvation comes by God's grace. Universe has predestination.
He lived 1592 to 1670 and was humanist. He advocated education in human values.
Spener founded school that included A. H. Francke, G. Arnold, and C. Dippel.
He lived 1631 to 1718. Altruistic and social motives in people come from God.
He lived 1635 to 1705. In response to Church corruption, he developed ideal of personal morality and contemplation {pietism, Spener}.
School included Samuel Clarke, Ralph Cudworth, John Balguy, and Richard Price on side of natural law and reason, and Hume, Shaftesbury, and Hutcheson on side of emotion {sympathy, Hume} and moral sense. Benevolence, not self-love, is the basis of morals.
He lived 1627 to 1704. Christianization relates nation histories and gives history purpose.
School included Shaftesbury, Samuel Clarke, William Wollaston, Francis Hutcheson, Henry Home, Edmund Burke, Adam Ferguson, Adam Smith, Joseph Butler, William Paley, Jeremy Bentham, and Bernhard de Mandeville.
School {Deism} included John Toland, Anthony Collins, Matthew Tindal, Thomas Chubb, Thomas Morgan, Lord Bolingbroke, Voltaire, Rousseau, Franklin, and Jefferson. Religion should have no revelation, no miracles, no sacraments, and no clergy, but have morals and God {natural religion, Deism}. God was creator but then let everything move on its own {deus ex machina, Deism}.
He lived 1650 to 1729, was archbishop of Dublin [1702 to 1729], and opposed Toland.
He lived 1665 to 1735, was bishop of Cork [1709], and opposed Toland.
He lived 1671 to 1713 and was deist. As third Earl of Shaftesbury, he introduced laws to prevent women and children from working in coal mines, to limit workdays to ten hours, and to create insane asylums.
Ethics
Feelings depend on reflection about self. They approve the good and beautiful and abhor the bad and ugly and so guide person's actions, making moral sense {moral sense} {sentimentalism}.
Goal of ethical life is individual-ability development, by unfolding essences. Individuals should use all forces and impulses in harmonious ways. Individuals should not conform to others' laws or humble self or will before other people. In cultivated and mature people, development combines selfish interests with altruistic motives.
Metaphysics
God is what orders physical world {deus ex machina, Shaftesbury}.
He lived 1679 to 1754, was follower of Leibniz, was Protestant, and founded Berlin Academy. He was international lawyer and favored natural law.
Epistemology
Rational and empirical knowledge are separate.
Ethics
Natural law and moral law are both strivings for perfection by monads. Increase in perfection brings happiness, and decrease brings pain. Helping other people and following moral duties lead to perfection and happiness. People improve by increasing idea clarity.
He lived 1675 to 1729 and was Moralist. Morals are part of natural law. Reason shows that people should follow the golden rule and be benevolent to others.
School included Montesquieu, Galiani, Charles St. Lambert, Comte de Volney, Condorcet, Dominique Garat, Morelly, and Mably.
He lived 1689 to 1755, wrote histories, and began political science.
Law
Laws must suit environment. The standard of law is justice.
Politics
Personal liberty is good. There are three government types. Kings of Europe illustrate monarchy. Rulers of Orient illustrate despotism. Republics can be either democratic or aristocratic. Democratic republics depend on virtue and public spirit. Aristocratic republics depend on moderation. Monarchy depends on honor. Despotism depends on fear. Virtue is the ideal of democracy. Moderation is the ideal of aristocracy. Honor is the ideal of monarchy. Fear is the ideal of despotism. States need constitutions. Separating executive, legislative, and judicial government branches is good.
He lived 1756 to 1836 and was Utilitarian. Society should have no rulers.
He lived 1670 to 1733. Civilization creates more unsatisfied wants and so reduces happiness and morals. People obey laws to get the most advantage. Laws should bring the greatest utility and happiness to the most people.
He lived 1694 to 1746 and affected Hume and Adam Smith. Feelings are innate and natural, not from reason or intuition. People have moral sense, an idea from Shaftesbury.
He lived 1692 to 1752. People have moral sense and can reason, and both cause conscience. Conscience balances self-love and benevolence and so controls passions towards other objects. However, conscience can be wrong.
School included Christophe de Beaumont.
School included Loens Schmidt, Salomon Semler, and Samuel Reimarus.
He lived 1715 to 1771. People have same potential, which differentiates with education and in society. Virtue should have reward. People obey laws to get the most advantage. Laws should bring the greatest utility and happiness to the most people.
He lived 1723 to 1790 and was Hutcheson's student. In economics, he studied free trade, economies of scale, infrastructure, agriculture as economic growth basis, and labor and capital interaction.
Economics should have no regulation {laissez-faire, economics}. Colonial exploitation {mercantilism, Smith} is bad. Labor division gives more value. Economic transactions among people make markets, which need no higher-level rules or conscious-agent actions {invisible hand, Smith}.
Ethics
People judge their actions by what others' judgment will be, so social life determines ethical feelings.
Politics
Workingmen should have good conditions and education. American colonies should have legislature representation.
He lived 1738 to 1794 and studied law.
He lived 1712 to 1769 and studied law.
He lived 1723 to 1816 and was English Moral Philosopher. Society can progress or not progress. People are social, fight, indulge, and can be virtuous.
He lived 1737 to 1809. Deism is preferable. Free-thinking and liberty are good. People have right to education, pensions, and other benefits.
He lived 1748 to 1832 and founded empiricist philosophy. His ideas led to fewer crimes carrying death penalty, new divorce and bankruptcy laws, new married-woman rights, and real-property law reform.
Epistemology
Sentences are meaning units. Sentences using certain words or about certain thoughts can translate into other sentences without those words or thoughts {paraphrasis} {contextual definition}, which people can perceive and so understand, for example, in terms of pain and pleasure.
Pronouns and demonstratives {egocentric particular} refer to different things in different contexts.
Ethics
The greatest good is pleasure. People pursue pleasure and avoid pain, for themselves or others. Both pleasure and pain are clear in meaning and are measurable. The greatest good for the greatest number is the goal of social ethics {utilitarianism, Bentham}. All actions are reasonable and good that promote "the greatest happiness of the greatest number" {greatest happiness principle} {utility principle} {principle of utility}.
Value systems can measure pleasure and pain in individual and social relations or actions. Action consequences can have values, and mind can choose the best action. Action effects on others' gains or losses determine act's morality. Ethical acts give utility, pleasure, and happiness to the most people.
Politics
Law is about rights and duties, which are complex ideas, not simple perceptions. Natural rights have no corresponding duties and so are contradictions. Legal rights have legal duties and so are rational. Experiments must continually test legal rights and duties. No rights are unchangeable or permanent. Description of, or wish for, right does not make it exist.
Laws should be socially useful and not merely reflect customs. Laws can produce the greatest happiness for the most people by punishing and rewarding to balance all people's desires. Law should make public and private interests coincide and ensure subsistence, abundance, security, and equality. Laws should make people pursue happiness, to attain general happiness. Perhaps, tradition and imperialism do not do this. Women's rights help.
Punishment is to deter people from causing pain or reducing pleasure, so punishment should be correct amount for this purpose.
Social contract, in which people agree to obey authority to obtain certain rights and benefits, is legal contract, not foundation for law.
Contract depends on maximizing utility.
Diminishing marginal utility causes equality to make more utility. Ability to subsist has greater utility than mere general abundance. Security has great utility.
Democracy allows the greatest number of people to seek to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
He lived 1752 to 1788 and studied law.
He lived 1740 to 1814 and studied sexual motives, sadism, and masochism. People are sums of their inherited qualities and so do not have personal responsibility for behavior. People can have sexual pleasure {sadomasochism} by inflicting pain or cruelty on others {sadism, Sade} or on oneself {masochism, Sade}.
He lived 1743 to 1805 and formulated argument from design.
Ethics
Right is what agrees with will of God. Proper actions come from moral, but not necessarily noble, feelings.
Utility, not emotions or altruism, causes people's actions. God uses Heaven and Hell to try to make people avoid temporal gain. People's fear and hope can control their selfish desires, because people act only in their own interest. Morals require rewards and punishments, together with power or authority to enforce law.
Metaphysics
Anyone who sees watches must assume that watchmakers designed and formed them, so observing universe makes people assume that God designed and formed it {argument from design, Paley}.
He lived 1753 to 1828. Science can finds phenomena laws but cannot give understanding.
School included Fourier, Claude de St. Simon, Bazard, B. Enfantin, P. Leroux, and P. Buchez.
School included Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, T. Cogan, William Godwin, J. Austin, G. C. Lewis, Alexander Bain, Henry Sidgwick, Hastings Rashdall, T. Fowler, and John Stuart Mill.
School included Tapparelli and Liberatore.
He lived 1760 to 1825, influenced Comte and Marx, and was the first socialist in France. History has progress. Medieval society became the Enlightenment and then science and technology, as merchants and industrialists arose and conflicted with church and king.
School included F. Hermes, B. Bolzano, A. Gunther, and W. Rosenkrantz.
METAPHYSICS: All things must continually synthesize into something new. Souls cannot be immortal, because they continually change into something else.
He lived 1768 to 1834 and founded Schleiermacherian School of Plato and Protestantism.
Epistemology
He invented a theory of how to interpret texts {hermeneutics, Schleiermacher}. Analyze text language and author mind and development. Relate parts to whole text. Knowledge gained can find new knowledge, which expands knowledge {hermeneutic circle}.
The goal of knowledge is to show identity of being and thought, which appear separate in consciousness as perception and conception. This goal can never have complete attainment. As method, presuppose that they are the same as God and try to understand process involved in uniting them.
Ethics
Religion is communion with, and absolute dependence on, God, universal, infinity, or unified thought and being. Religion is not about knowing or doing right actions.
All ethical action is for uniting nature and reason. This is the moral and natural law.
People develop lives in particular ways based on natural law, nature, and harmony. Aristocrats live life fully, cultivate sensibilities, and ignore rules and laws as unnecessary.
Metaphysics
Absolute Good or Infinite has Ideas in Mind.
He lived 1804 to 1872 and was Theist. He studied people as thinking and acting subjects {philosophical anthropology}.
Ethics
God is what man conceives himself to be and wishes to be. People have alienation, because they do not understand, or are not successful in, actual world and so turn to fantasy and religion. Religion projects people's emotions and thoughts.
He lived 1818 to 1883, was Feuerbach's and Bauer's student, and was Young Hegelian. He wanted to merge Hegelianism with Enlightenment materialism. He began working with Engels [1844] and helped found Communist League with Engels [1848]. He helped found First International Workingmen's Association [1864].
Economics
One person or group cannot affect market, though people create markets.
Market and capitalists {bourgeoisie} exploit workers {proletariat}. Capitalism and markets always tends to form monopolies and create injustice. They take away freedom, prevent constructive social activity, cause competition, block cooperation, and take labor products away from laborer to anonymous place. Bourgeoisie create new production forces. Those forces control proletariat.
First basic production mode {feudalism, Marx} had landowners in control. Second mode {capitalism, Marx} had industrialists in control. Third and final mode {socialism, Marx} will have wage earners in control.
Capitalism and private property are about profit making, not about people. Employers increase their profits by adding capital, decreasing labor, and merging, to control the market and bankrupt other smaller businesses. More people become unemployed and wages fall, which can lead to revolution.
Production level greater than wage level {surplus value} causes profit.
However, if surplus value theory is true, labor-intensive industries should have higher profits, but they do not. Actually, different industry types have about equal profit.
To maximize profit, businesses try to keep wages low and employ few workers. Profit minimizes employment, and workers are poor.
Economic system must change to allow human meaning and freedom, by removing social classes and allowing people to produce under their will, under rule of proletariat {dictatorship of the proletariat}.
Only labor, not land or capital, has value {labor theory of value}. Capital and resources are indirect labor. Because capitalistic systems discount labor, they make too much capital {overproduction}, have overproduction, and have unsold goods, and economy has business cycles.
Epistemology
Social and economic relations {culture base} {base, culture}, particularly production ability, determine society's beliefs, arts, laws, politics, government, institutions, morals, and religions {superstructure}. The superstructure and social ideas {ideology, society} favor and are for society's ruling class.
Perception is interaction between subject and object, using the dialectic. The process can never be complete. To know sensations and perceptions, you must use or apply them.
Because people and knowledge change over time as situations change, values change.
Ethics
Inhuman social and economic conditions cause alienation. Culture, religiosity, and materialism suppress expression of spirit. Inhuman social and economic conditions also block people from getting basic needs. People cannot be free to exercise their will or realize their essence. Life has no meaning.
Religion is an opiate and an illusion.
History
History is dialectical materialism applied to matter and man's relation to matter, which results in good production-mode changes. Production modes determine philosophy, art, politics, and history.
History is deterministic.
The five history epochs are tribal communism, classical civilization, feudalism, capitalism, and communism. Epochs have spirits, which determine people's actions, ideas, and environment. At historical periods, one class, such as feudalism nobility or capitalism petty-bourgeoisie, dominates, because they optimize production.
Politics
Group creates state to allow one class to exploit another. Government is state's agent in this process. Dominant class achieves and then maintains power.
However, the dialectic always maintains struggle between classes. Capitalism injustices lead to revolt of the masses. Overcoming capitalist power requires revolution. After capitalist-system breakdown, proletariat will collectively establish goals and produce accordingly. Dictatorship of proletariat is transition to state control of land and production {communism, Marx}, which is the only alternative to capitalism.
He lived 1806 to 1884 and was Theist.
He lived 1820 to 1895 and was Young Hegelian. He met Marx [1842], founded Communism [1848], and organized revolutionary movements in Europe.
Epistemology
Practical results determine truth.
Metaphysics
Nature develops through dialectic {dialectical materialism}. Matter has opposites and contradictions, whose dialectic gives motion and development to matter. Dialectic causes quantitative and then qualitative change. Change results in loss or negation and thus leads to new things. Matter gives thought form, which is the dialectic. Matter came before consciousness.
Politics
Society develops through dialectical materialism. History is struggle between classes.
He lived 1802 to 1880 and was humanist and Theist.
He lived 1801 to 1866 and was Theist. Being is free-personality self-production.
School included H. Glogau, W. Dilthey, C. Sigwart, and Fichte's follower R. Eucken.
School included Gustav Theodore Fechner, Wilhelm Wundt, and Francis Herbert Bradley.
He lived 1821 to 1862 and developed evolutionary laws of history. History has three stages. Theological stage depends on supernatural and has rule by priests. Metaphysical stage depends on concepts and has rule by judges. Positive or scientific stage depends on experimental laws and has rule by businessmen.
School included Feuerbach and Eugen Dühring.
School included J. H. Newman, Pusey, W. C. Ward, F. D. Maurice, Matthew Arnold, Sieley, Pierre Leroux, Jean Reynaud, Charles Secretan, and Jules Lequier.
He lived 1814 to 1876. People should form voluntary cooperative groups with no private property {collectivism}. Revolutions {anarchism} should end repression by politicians, give freedom, and end political power by bourgeois or proletariat.
He lived 1838 to 1900 and was Utilitarian. Only conscious states have value, because people experience and appreciate them. Achievement, success, or satisfaction value transfers to conscious state.
He lived 1849 to 1901. Morals depend on society.
He lived 1805 to 1900 and was Unitarian. Motivations are the basis of morals {agent-relative morality, Martineau}.
He lived 1836 to 1882 and was Idealist.
He lived 1833 to 1911 and was historian of culture. By studying other cultures and life, people can gain higher understanding in world-view {weltanschaungen}, such as materialism, pantheism, vitalism, or idealism. People understand history, writers, and artists by imagining their lives, cultures, and work's spirit {Verstehen, Dilthey}. Life contains meaning and purpose, which continually change.
Charles Sanders Peirce founded school that included James, Dewey, F. C. S. Schiller, Papini, Paulman, Duvas, Pieron, Janet Baldwin, Delorian, Piaget, and Benet.
He lived 1890 to 1940, was Pragmatist, and wrote about ethics.
He lived 1859 to 1952, was pragmatist, and studied social and psychological processes of problem solving and inquiry. In logic, he developed the idea of statement truth based on context {warranted assertibility}.
Aesthetics
Aesthetics is about consummatory experience and secondary qualities.
Education
Children should learn by doing practical things and experiments and by having social experiences. In this way, they learn how to solve problems. They can have more equality, with less social division. People learn by doing {theory of inquiry}.
Epistemology
Inquiry involves having problem in a context, making hypothesis about solution, testing hypothesis in context, refining hypothesis, and retesting. Inquiry is a way of adjusting to environment and is how people unify and order contexts. Inquiry solves problem in context, so people can take proper action for that context. Inquiry can be useful for science, society, and individuals.
Testing ideas involves observing effects {instrumentalism, Dewey}. If idea works or is good, people believe it, but only in proper context. Theories give truths only about observable world. Truth is not final, eternal, or perfect but evolves with time and environment. All knowledge can be false {fallibilism, Dewey}.
Ethics
Human action is for solving psychological and social problems. Through inquiry, people can grow in ability and experience. Means and ends can unify.
Metaphysics
Human action shapes reality. Reality changes and grows.
Politics
Experienced empirically derived laws determine political values.
Democracy is an experiment to allow people and society to grow stably.
He lived 1863 to 1952 and was skeptical.
Aesthetics
Beauty is pleasure in thinking about object and is object quality.
Epistemology
People unite instinct and reason in a form of common sense. People know only their immediate perceptions. People have faith in them, animal faith. Mind perceives object essences {Critical Realism}.
Ethics
Religion is myth and untrue but is useful and has poetic beauty.
Metaphysics
Universe is mechanistic and materialist, but man must have faith in the unknowable, which is outside religion.
Politics
History realizes God's plan for man's salvation.
He lived 1842 to 1921 and was communist and anarchist. State, law, police, courts, armies, teachers, capitalists, and parents aid ruling class. Rulers rule for themselves, not the people. Anarchism is against such authoritarianism. People left alone will be peaceful, cooperate, and produce. Living in communes, with property sharing and no authoritarianism, is best.
He lived 1873 to 1928 and led "proletarian culture". He emphasized science {tektology} of organizations in general.
He lived 1847 to 1922. Changing society requires revolution. Worker control of capital {syndicalism, Sorel} is best.
He lived 1858 to 1924. The whole system of goods adds value to each good {ideal utilitarianism}.
He lived 1870 to 1945, started Kyoto School, and tried to unite Zen Buddhist and Western philosophy, especially that of James and Bergson.
He lived 1880 to 1936, wrote about history, and was pessimist. History has cycles. History begins with culture and becomes civilization.
He lived 1883 to 1969 and founded existentialism. Self acts of itself and for itself, communicates with other selves, and always faces death and suffering.
School included Sartre, Camus, Heidegger, Kierkegaard, Simone Weil, Nikolai Hartmann, Johannes Rehanke, and Gabriel Marcel. Marcel first used the word existentialism.
He lived 1865 to 1936. People need philosophy that life is eternal and significant beyond material world, though people cannot know this. People should have faith only in faith itself. Jesus and Don Quixote lived on this basis.
School included the logical positivists Rudolph Carnap, Herbert Feigl, Hans Hahn, Kurt Gödel, Philip Frank, Otto Neurath, Moritz Schlick, and Friedrich Waisman. Preferences in ethics determine political values.
He lived 1883 to 1955. Reality is self and life interactions. Intellectual minority needs to rule to prevent anarchy.
He lived 1875 to 1965, in Alsace and Africa, and wrote about history. People should revere their own and others' lives {reverence for life}.
He lived 1882 to 1950 and was Existentialist.
School included Unamuno y Jugo.
He lived 1878 to 1950 and advocated organized state {ständestaat}.
He lived 1889 to 1960. People have relationships {ninjen} differently expressed in different cultures.
He lived 1885 to 1977.
He lived 1895 to 1973 and founded Frankfurt School, which was critical of totalitarianism and promoted rationalism.
He lived 1889 to 1968 and wrote about history.
School included Teilhard de Chardin, Erich Przywara, Jacques Maritain, and Gabriel Marcel.
School included Paul Tillich, Martin Buber, and Karl Barth.
He lived 1898 to 1979, was of Frankfurt School, and spoke of sexual freedom.
He lived 1899 to 1992. He studied free markets as methods to disseminate information. He also studied how synapses can change to be more or less excitable.
School included Lewis Mumford, E. G. Spaulding, C. Lloyd Morgan, James Jeans, R. G. Collingwood, Benedetto Croce, and Karl Popper.
He lived 1919 to 2002 and developed phrastic and neustic meanings [Hare, 1963]. Objective judgments about individuals should apply to all similar instances {universalizability}, but subjective judgments about individuals cannot so apply.
Ethics
Reasoning about morals can make consistent morals. Morals are commands to do or not do something {prescriptivism, Hare}. Morals are not truths {descriptivism, Hare} or emotions {emotivism, Hare}. Morals are not relative or based on situations but are universal. Morals associate with emotions. However, some moral situations involve little emotion or ambiguous emotions.
He lived 1909 to 1972, led independence [1957], and became prime minister and president [1957 to 1966]. He advocated socialism and Pan African Union.
She lived 1920 to ? and wrote against prescriptivism. Morals are about thoughts and acts that objectively cause good or harm.
He lived 1922 to 1984, advocated socialism, and was President of Guinea [1958 to 1984].
He lived 1929 to ?. Morality is about human fulfillment. People make choices based on social developments. Society is now losing its foundations, so people are changing choices.
He lived 1907 to 1992. Responsibility requires behavior control and understanding of actions and rules. People relate laws to morals and values. Laws are reasons for actions, without content. Society roles cause parents, police, and soldiers to have duties and responsibilities {role responsibility}.
He lived 1906 to 2001, advocated African-culture glorification {Negritude}, and was Senegal president [1960 to 1980].
He lived 1922 to 1999, was Tanzania president [1961 to 1979], and advocated collectivism {Familyhood} {Ujama socialism}. Collective community farms {ujama} failed.
He lived 1924 to 1997, was Zambia president [1964 to 1991], and advocated Zambian humanism.
He lived 1909 to ?, contributed to ordinary-language philosophy at Oxford, and wrote about counterfactual conditionals. History aids understanding, because phenomena always have personal and unique aspects {historicism, Berlin}. Hedgehogs have one reaction. Foxes have many possible reactions. Life's purposes have no unity. People can have positive liberty or negative liberty.
He lived 1928 to ? and was Catholic. Unjust world causes questions about morality and then about religion. Absolute should be divine.
He lived 1946 to ? and wrote about animal welfare.
He lived 1931 to ?. Law is about rights and principles, not policies or goals.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225