Speaking, listening, reading, and writing {language}| use grammar and convey meaning. Language relates to mind, meaning, implications {implicature}, purposes, contexts, rules, social situations {pragmatics, language}, and physical world. Language syntactic and logical structures differ from generating and understanding language. Language has motives or intentions, carries information in a stable semantic system, and uses phonemic/phonetic/phonological, lexical, and syntactic codes. Reciprocal communications aid cooperation and define societies. Communication is necessary for social behavior. Communication changes behavior probabilities in other species members, in adaptive ways. Languages and tools have subtask hierarchies.
grammar and semantics
Language involves following rules and thinking rationally. Societies have common languages and thinking. Linguistic units have contexts and rules. Rules differ at phonological, syntactical, grammatical, and meaning levels. Semantic relations are more important than grammatical, which are more important than phonological.
primary language
Spoken language {primary language} always comes before written language. Writing systems depend on spoken-language units. Written language typically does not affect spoken language.
aspects
Externalized language {E-Language} is actual spoken words about concepts. Internalized language {I-Language} is coded brain information for concepts.
number of languages
There have been 4500 to 7000 languages, with many in Africa. Jungles have isolated regions and so many languages.
purposes
Language refers to objects and events, expresses human emotions, commands action, uses metaphors in poetry and for sacred and mysterious, has stock phrases and expressions to further social relations and politeness {phattic communication, society}, and has meta-linguistic meanings.
Speech has situations with speakers and listeners. Speech happens only if speaker intends to affect audience. Speakers and listeners use information about what they believe and want in current context.
purposes: assistance
Speech often involves asking for help or information. People ask themselves questions and get answers.
purposes: information
Language can access declarative information. Humans talk to themselves, both sotte voce and silently, as well as others. However, talking is sequential and slow compared to unconscious cognition. Talking depends on current thoughts.
purposes: survival
Language can aid group survival, but it also can cause instability or not be important.
brain
Broca's area, left inferoparietal, left parieto-occipital, left posterior hemisphere, planum temporale, right hemisphere, and Wernicke's area relate to language.
posture
Speech depends on upright posture, which allows tongue position shifts and pharyngeal-tract lengthening.
handedness
Humans starting 300,000 years ago probably had cerebral dominance, because skulls are asymmetric and people inherit brain and skull shape. Human skulls mold to brain. Right-handedness first appeared in Lower Old Stone Age, when tool making became common [Jaynes, 1976]. Language is typically in left hemisphere.
memory
Memory may require language. Language production and comprehension require short-term memory. Memory involves sense of self and change {extended consciousness}. Self depends on sense qualities, proprioception, and sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems [Damasio, 1999].
consciousness
Using language requires sensation and perception for feedback. Automatic speech does not require awareness. People without language ability can still be conscious, so consciousness does not need symbols, syntax, and grammar. Image creation does not need language, memory, or reasoning [Damasio, 1999].
self-consciousness
Only humans are self-conscious and have feelings, because only they have language [Macphail, 1999] [Quine, 1953] [Quine, 1974] [Quine, 1990].
Social Sciences>Linguistics>Language
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Date Modified: 2022.0224