Sentence forms {syntax}| {syntagmatic} relate linguistic units. Syntax relations reflect relations in world and mind. Languages use syntax forms: linear/regular or unrestricted, contracting or non-contracting, and context-sensitive or context-free. All utterances have syntax.
roles
Sentences have nested or embedded phrases. Phrases have roles or sentence slots {phrase structure} {argument structure}. Roles include subject, verb, object, agent, theme, goal, source, instrument, beneficiary, time, and place. Syntax uses lexical categories, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions, and adverbs. Syntax uses phrasal categories, such as noun phrases, verb phrases, prepositional phrases, and sentences.
phonology
Syntactic structure substitutes words for lexical concepts to make phonological structure.
Expressions {idiom}| {idiomatic} can have special meaning.
Words {interjection}| can be placeholder words, surprise words, or emphasized words: ah, hey, oh, no, say, well, and wow. Some languages do not have interjections.
Syntactic structure relates to phonological structure through language words {lexicon}|.
Sentences {sentence, grammar}| have positions. Sentence positions can have required order {linear sentence}.
Nouns are words for objects. Verbs are words for actions. Adjectives are words for attributes {parts of speech}|.
Subjects, verbs, objects, modifiers, and other speech parts {grammatical category} fill sentence positions.
Words {conjunction, grammar}|, such as "and" and "or", can denote connections between two words or clauses. Conjunctions {coordinating conjunction} can connect same-type words: and, but, for, not, or, so, yet. Conjunction pairs {correlative conjunction} can connect same-type words: both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, and whether/or. Conjunctions {subordinating conjunction} can connect subordinate clauses: after, as, as well as, because, if, in order that, provided, since, so, so that, than, that, though, unless, when, why. Some languages do not have conjunctions.
Words {phrase, sentence} can substitute for speech parts.
Subsentences {clause} can substitute for speech parts. Clauses {subordinate clause} can depend on other clauses.
Words {preposition}| can denote sentence word relations. There are 80 to 100 prepositions. Some languages do not have prepositions. Phrases {prepositional phrase} can be about other sentence words {object, preposition}.
space
Prepositions can be about spatial location: on, in, near, at, and above. Prepositions can refer to object axis above or below vertical axis, distance from axis, or direction from axis. Prepositions can describe object motions related to location descriptions, such as motion paths and where paths begin and end.
shape
No prepositions require knowledge of figure shapes.
object
No prepositions require knowledge of reference objects, except axis, or figure parts. Spatial configurations can be non-stereotypical or ambiguous.
time
Prepositions can be about time.
possession
Prepositions can be about possession.
grammar
Prepositions can be grammatical markers.
Preposition-like words {postposition} can be after verbs.
Words {adjective}| can modify nouns.
In English, selector, determiner, order, number, size/shape/color, and classifier precede noun {adjective order}.
Adjective phrases {predicate adjective} can pair with copulas. With no copula, phrases are predicates.
Adjectives {article}| can specify nouns. Some languages do not have articles.
Articles {definite article} can be "the".
Articles {demonstrative article} can be "this", "that", "these", and "those".
Articles, pre-articles, and post-articles {determiner} determine nouns.
Articles {indefinite article} can be "a" or "an".
Articles {partitive, article} can be "some".
Words {prearticle} can be similar to articles but not as specific: some, many, several, much, most, all, each, both, and every.
Degree {degree, grammar}| can be superlative or comparative degree.
Between two, one is better {comparative degree}|.
Among choices, one is best {superlative degree}|.
Words {adverb}| can modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
Adverbs {conjunctive adverb} can introduce clauses: accordingly, furthermore, however, moreover, therefore.
Adverbs {qualifier}| can modify adjectives qualitatively: very, bit, rather, and somewhat,.
Adverbs {quantifier, grammar}| can modify adjectives quantitatively.
Words {noun}| can refer to persons, ideas, places, or things. Nouns can be about sensed things {concrete noun} or about ideal things {abstract noun}.
After noun phrases, noun phrases {apposition}| {appositive} with similar meaning can be between commas.
Nouns can be main sentence parts {nominal sentence}.
Nouns {noun complement} {complement, noun} can complete verbs.
Nouns have sentence uses {case, noun}|.
grammar
Nouns can be subjects {subjective case}. Nouns can be direct objects {objective case}. Nouns can show possession {possessive case}. Nouns can be indirect objects {nominative case}. Nouns can be adjectives {adnominal case}. Nouns can be objects used {instrumental case}. Nouns can be help to, or cause of, actions {agentive case}. Nouns can be accompaniments {comitative case}. Nouns can be hypothetical or conditional {subjunctive case}.
meaning
Besides these grammatical functions, nouns can indicate space and time relations, prepositional object, person addressed, or place {locative case}. Nouns can be separate from rest of sentence {absolute case}. Nouns can be for becoming or transforming into something {factive case}. Nouns can name uninflected word form {common case}.
types
Cases can be nominative case, vocative case, and all other cases {oblique case}.
Nouns {substantive noun} can be adjectives.
Nouns {common noun}| can be about classes or general things. Common nouns are not proper nouns and are not pronouns.
Nouns {proper noun}| can be about particular thing or specific, named things.
Verbs {gerund}| can be in noun form, as continuing actions, and can govern case. Verbals {gerundive} {verbal adjective} can be adjectives, typically after direct objects. Only Indo-European languages have gerunds.
Verbs can be in noun form {participle}|, as completed actions.
Verbal nouns {supine noun} can have unusual inflection.
Verbs {verbal, grammar}| can be nouns or adjectives, such as in infinitives, participles, gerunds, gerundives, and supines.
Nouns can be male, female, or neutral {gender}|. Russian, Greek, Latin, and German use three genders. Languages can use two genders, male and female. Swahili uses six genders. Gender refers to social roles and other meanings besides biology. Some languages do not use gender.
In gender systems {natural gender system}, animate objects can be actual gender, and inanimate objects can be neuter.
Nouns {epicene} can be for male or female gender.
Nouns are singular or plural {number, grammar}. The idea of counting is in all languages. Chinese and Vietnamese do not use noun number categories but denote number by classifier words. Classical Greek, Sanskrit, and some Slavonic languages use number 2 {dual number}, as well as singular and plural. Fijian uses number 3 {trial number}.
If used with cardinal numbers, numerals can indicate classes {auxiliary numeral}, as in Japanese.
Nouns {count noun} can be enumerable. Count nouns can take indefinite articles and are plural. Bounded nouns, nouns about events, and telic nouns are similar to count nouns.
Nouns {mass noun, syntax}| can be singular but about divisible objects. Mass nouns are similar to plural nouns. Unbounded nouns, nouns about processes, and atelic nouns are similar to mass nouns.
Numbers {numeral, noun}| can be cardinal, ordinal, iterative, multiplicative, or partitive.
Nouns {compound noun} can combine two or more things, using connected nouns or more than one noun.
Nouns {collective noun}, such as "orchestra", can be about sets of similar things.
Nouns {antecedent, noun} {referent, noun} {pronoun}| can substitute for nouns. Pronouns agree with referents in number, person, and gender. Pronoun references should be to antecedents. Pronoun references should be unambiguous. Pronoun references should be definite. Pronoun references should be specific.
Nouns can refer to speaker, hearer, others, or viewpoint {person, grammar}. All languages use person categories. Person is I, we, you, he, she, it, or they. Pronouns {exclusive personal pronoun} {inclusive personal pronoun} can delineate groupings.
Pronouns {demonstrative pronoun} can point to referents: this, that, these, and those.
Pronouns {indefinite pronoun} can be general: some, someone, somebody, something, any, anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everybody, everything, other, another, either, neither, all, many, few, each, both, one, none, nobody, and nothing.
Pronouns {intensive pronoun} can be for emphasis: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves.
Pronouns {interrogative pronoun} can be in questions: who, whose, what, whom, which, when, where, why, and how.
Pronoun forms {obviative} can refer to new third persons.
Pronouns {personal pronoun} can substitute for people or things: I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours, you, your, yours, he, him, his, her, his, hers, it, its, they, them, their, and theirs.
Pronouns {reflexive pronoun} can show action on themselves: myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, and themselves.
Pronouns can connect clauses to antecedents {relative pronoun}: that, which, who, whom, and whose.
Verbs describe actions as completed, ongoing, or not completed {aspect}|. Aspect can be about action frequency, regularity, start, or type. Aspect relates to tense and mood. Aspect in Russian and Greek refers to completed or incomplete actions. Aspect in Greek can refer to short action length or future action. Not all languages use aspect.
Verbs {auxiliary verb} can convey tense and mood when used before perfect "have", progressive "be", or passive "be": can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would.
Verbs {copula, grammar}| {linking verb} can link subject and complement: am, are, be, is, was, been. Verbs {substantive verb} can be "to be" and equivalents. Verb "to have" denotes possession. Verb "to be" denotes class member, having class, place, or time, or having existence. Verbs "to have" and "to be" carry only tense, mood, and aspect. Some languages do not use "to have" and/or "to be".
Verbs can show kinship or familiarity {familiar form}.
Adjectives or verbs {predicate, grammar}| can state something about subjects or objects. Adjectives are about qualities and states. Verbs are about actions or states. Adverbs modify both adjectives and verbs. Simple predicates have one verb or verb phrase.
Verbs {reflexive verb} can have subject and object.
Finite verbs can be main sentence parts {verb sentence}.
Verbs {infinitive}| can be secondary verbs. Infinitives typically have no person or number. Some languages have personal infinitives, with person and number.
Infinitives {split infinitive} can have an adverb between "to" and verb.
Verbs have different activity types {mode, verb}|.
Verbs {transitive verb}| can describe actions involving subject and direct object.
Verbs {intransitive verb}| can denote class by common noun, describe class by adjective, or equate classes.
Verbs {semi-transitive verb} can have no passive but have direct objects.
Verbs are in statements, commands, wishes, questions, obligations, subjectives, exclamations, or possibilities {mood, verb}. Moods {conditional mood} can be for conditions. Not all languages use mood. Mood and tense relate.
Verbs {modal verb} can directly show mood: may, can, will, shall, ought, must, and need.
Questions, exclamations, assertions, and other verbal phrases have different effects {force, grammar}.
Verbs {impersonal verb} can use third person singular to denote action by unspecified agents.
Verbs {personal verb} can be about I, us, you, he, she, it, or they.
Verbs describe actions in past, present, or future {tense, verb}|. Present, simple past, and future tense are main tenses {primary tense}. Tense {simple tense} can have no auxiliary. Not all languages use tense. Mood and tense relate.
Present tense {historical present} can stand in relation to past.
Actions or states can result from past actions or states {perfect tense}.
Actions or states can be about past {pluperfect} {past perfect tense}.
Tense can express that action was in past {preterit}.
Verbs can be active, passive, or middle {voice, verb}|. Some languages do not have passive voice or middle voice. Languages with no passive voice can use voice {inactive voice}.
Verbs can describe subject actions {active voice}|.
Verbs can describe actions that affect subject but objects do not act {middle voice}.
Verbs can describe object actions on subjects {passive voice}|.
People can analyze words or sentences grammatically {parsing, grammar}|.
Analyzing sentences {sentence analysis} involves substituting, expanding, removing ungrammatical productions, removing non-generative productions, and removing non-terminal symbols from end. Because sentences are complex, hearers can analyze same sentence in different ways.
subject, verb, and object
Each of the six possible sequences of subject, verb, and object appears in at least one human language.
types
String analysis can be bottom up or top down. Bottom-up analysis scans grammar rules to see if any apply to input string. Top-down analysis hypothesizes output sentences or phrase structures and tries to generate input string, trying grammar rules and backtracking if rule fails.
Top-down parsers start with rules with variables and find places that match rules. Bottom-up parsers start with constants and make variables based on rules. Tree structures {parse tree, sentence} show how rules apply. Diagrams {sentence diagram, sentence} show sentence structures. Sentences can have different parse trees.
Because words, phrases, and sentences nest, grammar rules can use terms about themselves {recursion, grammar} {recursive function}|. In quantitative grammars, recursive functions {composition, grammar} can combine current function value f and second function value g to make new current function value f: f = f + g. Recursive functions {primitive recursion} can add one to current function value: f = f + 1. Recursive functions {minimalization} {multiple recursion} can modify current function value so it approaches a limit, typically using mu operator. Because quantitative grammars involve only integers, quantitative grammars can be algorithms.
Similar events or operations can repeat {iteration}|. For verbs, Hungarian and Finnish languages, but not English, have an iterative marker to convey sense of repetition, which acts semantically like a plural marker.
In speech, ends of nested or interrupting phrases {nested phrase}| typically have no marks.
Grammars can have no loops {standard form}.
Outline of Knowledge Database Home Page
Description of Outline of Knowledge Database
Date Modified: 2022.0225