Social studies can be about peoples, historical events, and philosophy {history}.
People {ethnic group} diversified over continents.
central Africa {Bantu}.
south-Africa white and Khoi mixture {Baster}.
south Africa {Basuto}.
west Africa {Benin, group}.
north Africa {Berber}.
pygmy group {Biaka}.
south Africa {Boer}.
Kalahari Desert, Namibia {Bushmen}.
Egypt {Egyptian}.
west Africa {Ewe}.
north Nigeria {Hausa}. They are now Muslim.
Namibia {Herero}.
Nigeria {Ibo}.
south Africa and herders {Khoi}. Bushmen are Khoi.
south Africa. It includes Hottentot and Bushmen {Khoisan}.
Botswana Kalahari Desert {!Kung} {Kung}.
Africa {Mandenka}.
east Africa {Masai}.
pygmy group {Mbuti}.
north Africa {Moor}.
Namibia {Nama}.
Namibia {Ovambo}.
equatorial Africa rainforest {Pygmy}.
south Africa hunter-gatherers {San} {Hottentot}.
east Africa {Somali}.
Kenya {Swahili}.
Africa {Ubangi}.
Africa {Yoruba group}.
south Africa {Zulu}.
Americas groups {Americas groups} are in North and South America.
{Karitiana}.
{Pima}.
{Surui}.
Australia {Aborigine}.
northeast USA {Algonquin}.
north USA {Apache}.
north USA {Arapaho}.
north USA {Blackfoot}.
French Acadians came from Nova Scotia to Louisiana. French from Caribbean also live near New Orleans, Louisiana {Cajun}.
Canada {Canuck}.
USA {Cherokee}.
USA {Cheyenne, group}.
USA {Chippewa}.
USA {Choctaw}.
USA {Comanche}.
USA {Cree}.
USA {Creek}.
Mixed peoples live in Louisiana {Creole, group}.
USA {Crow}.
north-central USA {Dakota}.
Delaware {Delaware, group}.
Alaska {Eskimo}.
southwest USA {Hopi}.
Michigan {Huron}.
New York {Iroquois}.
northwest USA {Kwakiutl}.
central USA {Mandan}.
Florida {Miami, group}.
northeast USA {Mohawk}.
northeast USA {Mohican}.
central USA {Mound Builder}.
southwest USA {Navajo, group}.
British Columbia {Nootka}.
USA {Ojibway}.
slang. Oklahoma {Okie}.
Oklahoma {Omaha, group}.
east Canada {Ottawa, group}.
Western Hemisphere {Pan-American}.
USA {Pawnee}.
Netherlands-settler descendants live in Pennsylvania {Pennsylvania Dutch}.
southwest USA {Pueblo}.
Florida {Seminole}.
USA {Shawnee}.
northwest USA {Shoshone}.
USA {Sioux}.
northwest USA {Tlingit}.
USA {Ute}.
northeast USA. It is slang {Yankee}.
southwest USA {Zuni}.
Amazon rain forest in Brazil {Arara}.
South America {Guarani}.
Amazon River in Brazil {Jivaro}.
Amazon rain forest in Brazil {Korubo}.
north Japan, perhaps Caucasian {Ainu}.
Negrito. Burma {Andaman Islander}.
Australia {Arunta}.
central Asia {Balochi}.
central Asia {Barusho}.
central Asia {Brahui}.
South Pacific Ocean {Caroline}.
Adjective is Sino- {Chinese}.
central Asia {Cimmerian}.
Cuman, Polovtsi, or Kipchak were in central Asia {Cuman} {Polovtsi} {Kipchak}.
India {Dravidian}.
Sarawak {Dysk}.
Nepal {Gurkha}.
central Asia {Hazara}.
Adjective is Hebraic. Palestine {Hebrew}. Adjective is Judaic {Jewish}.
Vietnam highlanders speak Miao {Hmong}.
central Asia {Hun}.
Adjective is Indic. Prefix is Indo-. India {Indian}.
Japan {Japanese, group} {Nipponese}.
Hindu Kush Mountains {Kafir}.
central Asia {Kalash}.
central Asia {Khazar}.
Iraq/Iran/Turkey {Kurd}.
central Asia {Makrani}.
Philippines {Mandingo}.
New Zealand {Maori}.
northeast Asia {Mongol}.
Asia {Oriental}.
East Indies {Papuan}.
central Asia {Pathan}.
South Pacific Ocean {Polynesian}.
Siberia {Samoyed, group}.
Arabia {Saracen}.
Sarawak {Sarawak, group}.
Negrito. Malaysia {Semang}.
Adjective is Semitic. Near East {Semite}.
Tibet {Sherpa}.
north India {Sikh}.
central Asia {Sindhi}.
East Indies {Sundanese}.
South Pacific Ocean {Tanka}.
South Pacific Ocean {Tonga}.
South Pacific Ocean {Trobriand Islander}.
Philippines {Tuareg}.
Kazakhstan {Turkoman}.
central Asia {Uygur}.
central Asia {Uzbek}.
Negrito. Sri Lanka {Veddoid}.
central Asia {White Hun} {Ephthalite}.
{Dai}.
{Daur}.
{Han}.
{Hezhen}.
{Lahu}.
{Miaozu}.
{Naxi}.
{Oregen}.
{She}.
{Tu}.
{Tujia}.
{Xibo}.
{Yakut}.
{Yizu}.
Arabia {Bedouin}.
{Druze}.
{Mozabite}.
{Palestinian}.
{Adygei}.
east Turkey {Armenian}.
Europe/India {Aryan}.
east Europe {Avar}.
France {Breton}.
southeast France {Burgundii}.
Caucasia {Caucasian}.
west Europe {Celt} {Kelt}.
east France and west Germany. Prefix is Franco- {Frank}.
Adjective is Gallic. France {Gaul, group}.
east Europe {Goth}.
central Asia and Hungary {Magyar}.
Europe {Merovingian}.
Moravia {Moravian}.
Europe/Western Hemisphere {Occidental}.
{Orcadian}.
east Europe {Ostrogoth}.
east France {Salian Frank}.
Sardinia {Sardinian}.
central Asia {Tartar} {Tatar}.
east Europe {Vandal}.
east Europe {Visigoth}.
Jewish peoples live in east Europe {Yiddish}.
Germany {Alemanni, group}.
north Germany. Prefix is Anglo- {Angle}.
Bavaria {Bavarian}.
Bohemia {Bohemian}.
Britain {British} {Briton}.
Cambridge, England {Cantabridgian}.
Russia {Cossack, group}.
Denmark {Dane}.
England {Druid}.
Finland {Finn}.
Ireland {Gaelic}.
Germany {German, group}.
Germany Hess region {Hessian}.
Ireland {Irish}.
Germany {Jute}.
north Norway and north Sweden {Lapp}.
Norway {Nordic}.
Normandy {Norman}.
Oxford, England {Oxonian}.
north Germany {Saxon}.
Scandinavia {Scandian}.
Switzerland {Swiss, group}.
Adjective is Teutonic. Germany {Teuton}.
Norse, Northmen, Norman, Dane, or Viking were in Scandinavia {Viking} {Northmen} {Norse}.
Wales {Welsh}.
Greece {Achaean}.
Greece {Attic}.
north Spain {Basque, group}.
north Italy {Etruscan}.
Prefix is Greco-. Greece {Greek}.
Romania {Gypsy}.
Spain {Iberian}.
Rome, Italy {Latin}.
north Italy {Lombard}.
Naples, Italy {Neapolitan}.
Mt. Olympus, Greece {Olympian}.
Greece {Panhellenic}.
Portugal {Portuguese}.
Italy {Sabine}.
Balkan Peninsula {Serb}.
east Europe {Slav}.
Sparta, Greece {Spartan}.
north Italy {Tuscan}.
History includes ages, eras, future history, inventions, leaders, nations, rulers, treaties, and religions, and wars.
About 13.72 billion years ago, universe space-time began, and space expanded at light speed.
It was not an explosion. Expansion happened to space, not in space. Because all space expanded equally, expansion and space had no center and no edge. Explosions have central point and farthest reach.
At origin, radiation had maximum density, maximum temperature (too hot to allow particles), and maximum pressure. Radiation was homogeneous, so every point had the same temperature, pressure, and density. Space had maximum curvature. Radiation had random motion but no net motion, because space expanded equally in all directions.
As universe cooled, lower energies allowed symmetry breaking, and new phases and matter-and-energy states arose.
From universe origin to Planck time {Planck epoch} {Planck era}, 10^-43 seconds after universe origin, universe was quantum foam, with quantum gravity. Temperature was more than 10^32 K. Total energy was more than 10^15 GeV. Universe diameter was less than 10^-36 meters. Universe was homogeneous, because all parts were close enough so gravitons and photons from any point affected all other points, and so united the universe.
About 10^-43 seconds after universe origin, universe diameter was 10^-36 meters, temperature was 10^32 K, total energy was 10^15 GeV. Until 10^-39 seconds after universe origin, universe had united forces. Strong force was weaker, electromagnetic force was similar, weak force was stronger, and gravity was very much stronger.
About 10^-39 seconds after universe origin, by symmetry breaking, strong nuclear force disengaged from electromagnetic and weak nuclear forces. Temperature was 10^30 K. Universe diameter was smaller than electron diameter. Some universe points were farther away than light travels during 10^-39 seconds, so universe had separate and independent gravitationally and electromagnetically evolving points, and was no longer homogeneous. Gravitational collapse can occur only in region sizes over which gravitons can travel during 10^-39 seconds, so energy distribution began to be irregular.
Between 10^-36 and 10^-34 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^28 K, and universe diameter was smaller than electron diameter. Starting between 10^-36 and 10^-34 seconds after universe origin until 1 second after, space underwent even more rapid expansion {inflation of universe} of 10^30 times, as allowed by general relativity. Universe grew to softball size. Photons had least-ordered thermal energy states, and nucleons had most order.
About 10^-23 seconds {Compton time} after universe origin, universe was 10^-15 meters diameter {Compton wavelength}, electron size.
About 10^-11 seconds after universe origin, at temperature 2.5 x 10^15 K, electromagnetic and weak forces became independent, by symmetry breaking. Universe was atom size.
About 10^-5 seconds to 10^-4 seconds after universe origin, quarks formed short-lived hadrons and mesons, as universe cooled enough to allow matter. Temperature was 2 x 10^12 K. Matter had charges, so universe had hot plasma.
About 10^-3 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^12 K. Universe had diameter two light-years. Long-lived protons, neutrons, electrons, positrons, and neutrinos formed, all traveling at nearly light speed, with masses ten times more than rest masses. Universe density was 4 x 10^9 g/cm^3. Number of protons equaled number of neutrons. Universe had hot plasma. Strong force was dominant.
About 10^-2 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^11 K. Number of neutrinos became constant, because they no longer interacted with other matter. Neutrinos had lower background temperature than photons. Universe was mostly in thermal equilibrium.
From 10^-2 seconds to 2 * 10^2 seconds after universe origin, protons and neutrons became deuterium, helium, and lithium. Free protons are hydrogen nuclei. One proton and one neutron bind to make deuterium nuclei. Two protons and two neutrons bind to make helium-4 nuclei. Three protons and four neutrons bind to make lithium-7 nuclei.
About 1 second after universe origin, temperature was 5 x 10^10 K. Universe had diameter 1 light-year. Electrons and positrons were no longer created, so they annihilated each other, except for excess electrons that made hot plasma. Protons and neutrons were still being created, and universe was 75% protons and 24% neutrons. Density was 10^5 g/cm^3.
About 100 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^9 K to 10^10 K. Particle creation stopped, so only protons, electrons, and neutrons existed. Neutron number was 1/6 to 1/7 of proton number: 85% protons and 15% neutrons. Protons and electrons made hot plasma. Weak force was dominant, so neutrons and protons were in thermal equilibrium. Nuclear fusion began to make helium nuclei from hydrogen nuclei.
About 1000 seconds after universe origin, temperature was 10^9 K. Universe diameter was 100 light-years. 25% of protons were in helium. Lithium-7 nuclei had 10^-10 of protons. Hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium nuclei were 75% of matter. Helium was 25% of matter. Lithium was 0.0000000001% of matter. Matter and energy density was 0.9 g/cm^3. Photons interacted with free electrons {coupling of matter and radiation} {Thomson scattering}. Electromagnetic force was dominant over gravity and pressure, so photons were like viscous fluid, allowing universe density fluctuations {density fluctuations}, which persisted.
About 70,000 years after universe origin, matter became more than radiation. Gravity clumped matter.
About 300,000 years after universe origin, temperature was 3000 K. Universe had density 10^-20 g/cm^3 and diameter 10^8 light-years. Because temperature dropped below ionization temperature, atomic nuclei had cooled enough to capture electrons, and neutral hydrogen atoms formed {recombination, cosmology}. Gas pressure was stronger than gravity in dense regions.
Universe was no longer hot plasma and no longer opaque to radiation {last scattering surface}. Because ionization stopped, particles no longer absorbed radiation, and photons were no longer in equilibrium with particles, so universe became transparent, as it is now. Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) began. CMB was homogeneous to 1 part in 10,000 (but that small irregularity began galactic clusters).
About 1,000,000 years after universe origin, background radiation had cooled to below temperature of visible light, and universe became dark, as it is now.
Before recombination, atom kinetic energy, photon energy, and neutral-hydrogen-atom spin energy {spin temperature} were the same. Kinetic energy caused collisions that transferred energy to and from electron spin. Kinetic-energy exchanges between atoms and free electrons caused photon-energy changes. Photon energy transferred to and from electron spin. After recombination, kinetic energy and spin energy declined faster than CMB photon energy. Continual collisions equalized spin and kinetic energies. About 10^8 years after universe origin, gas was too dilute to have enough collisions to keep spin and kinetic energies equal, and spin energy started to increase as particles absorbed photon energy. At same time, star and/or galaxy radiation started to heat gas and cause higher kinetic energy. About 10^9 years after universe origin, spin and kinetic energies were equal again. Photon energy decreases continuously as universe expands.
About 10^8 years after universe origin, temperature was -170 C. Universe had diameter 3 x 10^9 light-years, 1/30 of now. Universe asymmetries resulted in inhomogeneities that allowed galactic strings, galactic clusters, and galaxies to form. Dwarf galaxies formed by gravity, as hydrogen and helium atoms condensed into clouds. Clouds started to rotate, as they became denser. Colliding galaxies developed central supermassive black holes. As galaxies collided, densest spots became stars, as shock waves concentrated matter. Star gravity further clustered gas. Stars gave off light and heat. Radiation began to ionize surrounding gas.
About 5 x 10^8 years after universe origin, stars began to form as galaxies collided and became bigger. Exploding stars formed elements heavier than lithium.
About 10^9 years after universe origin, all intergalactic gas ionizes. Perhaps, galaxy central black-hole formation caused ionizing radiation. Perhaps, radiation came only from stars.
From 12 billion to 9 billion years ago, Milky Way Galaxy formed, along with other galaxies.
About 9 billion years ago, galaxy collisions and star formation maximized.
About 5 billion years ago, dark energy started to increase space expansion, because its density was greater than matter density. Universe diameter was 10^11 light-years. Density was 3 x 10^-30 g/cm^3, with 10^8 photons/nucleon. Background photons had 3 K blackbody background radiation, so temperature was 3 K.
About 4.57 billion years ago, sun and planets formed. Galaxy shock waves concentrated matter and encouraged star formation.
High-metal-content stars can form planets with air, land, and liquid water. About 4.57 billion years ago, Earth accreted matter from stellar disk. Then radioactivity melted Earth, and Earth formed different-density layers. Atmosphere had mostly carbon dioxide.
About 4.5 billion years ago, Moon formed when asteroid or comet twice as wide as Moon hit Earth.
About 4.5 billion years ago, gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy conversion (as iron sank to form Earth's core), meteorite collisions, and radioactive decay (six times more intense than now) melted Earth. Surface was 1300 K.
About 4.5 billion years ago, asteroids regularly hit Earth.
About 4.45 billion years ago, Earth's crust formed, and liquid water appeared. (However, if meteorites were few and atmosphere did not trap much heat, crust appeared after only 10,000,000 years and surface was cool, because Sun was faint.)
About 4.45 billion years ago, water in comets and asteroids formed oceans.
ZrSiO4 [4 is subscript] {zircon, rock} has zirconium, silicon, and oxygen. Zircons do not change in metamorphic processes and can move far from sources. Zircons contain radioactive uranium, which allows determining age. Their oxygen can have different isotopes, depending on formation temperature, with more oxygen-18 at low temperatures and with liquid water (from rain or ocean). Dot-sized zircon crystals are in Jack Hills conglomerate [-3,000,000,000] and Mt. Narryer in west Australia. These zircons had more oxygen-18 than mantle zircons and so formed in water. These zircons also have minerals from formation-site granitic rock, like continental crust. Therefore, these zircons had stayed on surface and never gone inside Earth, implying that Earth had a stable surface by 4.3 billion years ago.
About 3.8 billion years ago, the oldest sedimentary rocks (which only form underwater) formed in southwest Greenland. They have fossil cells.
About 1000 years from now, people will occupy all solar-system planets, moons, and space stations and be at nearby stars. The human line can then never end. Transceivers will allow accurate control of distant actions. Space stations and spaceships will link all solar system planets and satellites.
Energy production and control will increase greatly.
People will know exact conditions for starting and evolving life for all stars, planets, and life forms. Curiosity will be high. There will be no fear of contact. Transceivers will scan universe for signals from all possible life sources outside solar system.
Many miniature robot probes will explore all stars within 1000 light-years. Probes will have communication and analyzing powers. They will need no occupants, and light weights will allow speeds of 0.01 c. High quality, large numbers, and multiple controls cause probes never to stop or fail. Places found to have life will have many probes. The advanced economy and energy efficiencies can pay for probes.
Individual life span will lengthen to 150 years by organ replacement, cell rejuvenation, genetic alteration and supplementation, drugs, nutrition, exercise and relaxation programs, and mental health care.
Control over environment will be better.
Childhood will lengthen.
Brain will extend by man-machine interfaces, drugs, feedback techniques, and other mental controls. Humans will have consciousness that can inhabit machine, body, or both at once, with many specialized modules. People will be able to consciously move between consciousness types.
People will have many activities available. People will have exact mastery of all tasks. People can choose to be perfect in anything. Memory will be easy for all. Language will become perfect. All current knowledge will always be available. Perception techniques will enable perception from smallest to largest and coldest to hottest.
About 10000 years from now, many experiments will test social-science and natural-science theories. All knowledge and culture will be available to all people. All people will connect by many communication channels.
Cities will have buildings that change color and transparency to save energy.
People will have lifetime of 150 years. New people species will develop, for specialized tasks and environments, like under sea or in space. Specialized robotic beings will perform set tasks, repair each other, and plan. Species Homo will be extinct. People will have interconnection with machines, aided by drugs and bionics, making man-machines.
Earth will federate all cultural groups (Terran Union), with no states. Individual rights and interests will always prevail over state and society rights. Freedom, cooperation, harmony, and responsibility will be values. There will be congenial environments for all people and person types. Work will have further specialization and labor division.
Humans will not get to universe limits, because it is expanding, but they can inhabit nearby regions. However, inhabitants will not be able to communicate efficiently.
About 10^6 years from now, people will have evolved into many new species. Intelligent computers will work at all levels. Special analyzers will be available for medicine, law, and technology.
Giant solar collectors and large-scale hydrogen fusion will give billions of times more energy, with little pollution. Moons and planets will give unlimited raw materials, and planet construction will begin. There will be great wealth for all. Galaxy will have large-scale changes.
Giant communications antennas and equipment will be everywhere. People will be able to use very low and very high temperatures.
Tectonic activity will become smaller as Earth cools. Mountain building will decrease, Earth will be flatter, Siberia and Alaska will join, Asia and Australia will join, Panama will submerge, ocean will cover current continent edges, and glaciers will return.
About 10^9 years from now, growth will eventually slow. Space expansion, cooling, and randomization effects will tend to minimize space curvature and deconcentrate mass and energy. Everything will run best, with no waste or inefficiency. Thought and Mind growth will taper off. Perhaps, thought will control future.
About 5 x 10^9 years from now, Sun will become red giant. Earth will be 700 K.
About 1.5 x 10^10 years from now, Sun will become cool white dwarf star. Earth will freeze.
About 7 x 10^11 years from now, universe will be at Gibbons-Hawking temperature.
About 2 x 10^12 years from now, only nearby galaxies will be visible.
About 10^14 years from now, no more stars form. Stars will be iron and have no more fuel, because iron cannot fuse, so all stars will cool.
About 10^15 years from now, no planets will be around stars.
About 10^18 years from now, many stars will escape from galaxies, and galaxies will collapse, to leave only small galaxy cores.
About 10^20 years from now, escaped stars will maintain universe temperature of 3 K to 100 K, until 10^30 years after.
About 10^30 years from now, all galaxies will be in black holes.
About 10^32 to 10^33 years from now, proton decay to leptons will finish. Universe will be 10^13 to 10^20 bigger than now, so distance between two free particles will be 10^5 light-years. Universe will be gas of electrons, positrons, photons, neutrinos, and supermassive black holes.
About 10^65 years from now, matter becomes liquid through quantum tunneling.
About 10^70 years from now, if radiation dominates at critical density, electrons and protons will be part of atoms as big as universe is now. They will attract each other and annihilate to make photons.
About 10^85 years from now, electrons and positrons will combine.
About 10^98 years from now, largest black holes have evaporated.
About 10^100 years from now, black holes will have all decayed and evaporated, making mostly photons. If radiation dominates universe, it will become anisotropic.
If universe closes at maximum expansion, it will have dead stars, black holes, photons, and neutrinos. If universe contracts, it will make more energy, because photons will be blue-shifted instead of red-shifted, and black holes will eat all matter until all things are in one black hole.
Oldowan, PreChellean, Abbevillian or Chellean, Acheulian, and Mousterian cultures evolved, in that order.
Acheulian and Mousterian cultures existed.
Mongoloid and Caucasian peoples began and then Negroid and Brunet peoples began. Brunets are Iberian or Mediterranean, Hamitic or Berber in Egypt, East Indian, Polynesian, Dravidian in India, and Maori in New Zealand.
Cultures were first Aurignacian, then Solutrean and Gravettian, and then Magdalenian. Homo sapiens dominated Neanderthals, and Neanderthals became extinct.
People lived up to forty years.
Hunter-gatherers ground and polished stone tools. They used bows and arrows, used spears and spear-throwers, fished with nets with sinkers, fished with bone fishhooks, and hunted with barbed arrowheads. Small flint blades in wood or bone made sickles or knives, to gather wild plants. They chipped long blades from cylindrical stone cores. In Northern Hemisphere, flint burin chisels were for wood or antler/bone carving. They had stone saws, bone needles, and wooden tools.
They had earth, stone, mud, reed, bone, skin, and wood tents and houses, some with sunken floors. They had dwellings with kitchen, living, and sleeping rooms. They put wooden houses on stilts in lakes. They had fires and hearths. They used food storage. They had houses and villages, with up to 300 people. They followed herds near ice edge.
They had fur clothing from skin strips and used ornaments. They had mattocks, spoons, wheels, and lamps.
They tried sympathetic magic and had medicine men. They had religion.
They had rituals and ceremonies. They decorated themselves and tools. They carved.
They migrated to Australia and America. Cro-Magnon man, Galley hill man, and Swanscombe skull lived in Upper Paleolithic. Galley hill man was short and stocky, with thick skull.
Neolithic peoples had villages, advanced stone tools, and bone and wood tools. Ice ages were over. Burials were not elaborate. Votive offerings started in late Neolithic.
Neolithic people set stone tools, such as axes and hoes, in hafts. They used ground and polished stone tools, rather than chipped or flaked, such as celt ax heads. They had pottery making, carpentry, and weaving to make fabric. They used copper melting and casting. They had tattoos, jewelry, and personal property. They stored wheat and barley.
They had patriarchal society, used circumcision, followed couvade, and used levirate. Neolithic people had mummies, built large stone circles, and started burial mounds [-5000]. Late Neolithic had second burial of bare bones.
Metal workers hammered copper weapons and tools.
Began.
Bronze is 90% copper and 10% tin melted together. It was for armor, helmets, shields, and ornaments but not for farm tools. Armies had 3000 to 5000 soldiers, with hardened weapons. It is harder than copper but easier to melt and pour into molds. No bronze was in Americas.
It came from India.
It came from India.
By legend, the first age was the Golden Age, when immortals walked on Earth and no one worked. The second Silver Age was just before recorded history, when there was no war and a goddess ruled Earth. The third Age was the Bronze Age.
Pre Dong Son culture lived near Red, Ma, and Ca Rivers in north Vietnam. Pre Sa Huynh culture lived in south center near Dong Nai River. They used water buffalo, ox, and pig.
Celts learned it from continental Europe.
Iron Age began.
Bronze Age people used barley, wheat in primitive form, and domesticated animals.
Hittites began to use iron for tools, weapons, and chariots. Iron is harder than copper or bronze. Iron ore supply was greater than copper or tin supply.
It came from Middle East.
Horse sacrifices replaced bull sacrifices. It used rune writing symbols. It had seasonal ceremonies.
In astrology, constellation in which vernal equinox occurs determines age. Currently, Earth is in Age of Pisces. 2600 will start Age of Aquarius.
Nomad movements predominated.
Tang dynasty had ceramics, porcelain, and sculpture. Printing on paper using moveable wood type began.
Land ownership was hereditary, or high lord granted it in return for loyalty, service, soldiers, and money {feudalism}. Serfs belonged to lord's land. Roman laws and customs helped lead to feudalism. Aliens {clientes} were under patrician's legal protection. People attached themselves to powerful citizens {patrocinium}. People deeded land to patron {precarium}, in return for land use for life.
Barbarian chiefs gave land {benefice} {fief}| {fee, fief} {feud} {fiefdom} {feuda} or land tenure {enfeoffment} to their favorites, in return for allegiance and military service. As king, Charlemagne established this practice.
Lords protected lower lords {vassal}|.
After nomadic migrations ceased, Dark Ages ended and stable empires based on heredity and feudal systems developed.
After Gothic era, kings became dominant in Europe. Ideas of womanly beauty and grace, chivalry, and courtly love began with cult of the Virgin and Persian ideas about women. Many noble wives were at home during Crusades, and this code protected them. Nature observation began. Nobles had free time for play and fantasy.
Classical thought and art spread from east. National states rose, along with languages. Protestants broke from Catholic Church, which underwent Counter-Reformation. It emphasized humans {humanism, Renaissance}. What property do all humans have?
It emphasized human genius and emotion. European countries began exploration and colonialism.
Wars between Protestants and Catholics ended. Kings became dominant. It emphasized science and realism. Locke, Bayle, Diderot, Voltaire, d'Alembert, Montesquieu, Wolff, Mendelssohn, Lessing, and Kant were main thinkers.
Ethics
People are good. Reason is people's unique faculty, allowing thought, action, art, and education. Progress can move toward culture based on reason. People are equal in reason. Tolerance of local differences is virtuous. Atheism or deism is correct. However, no one can reason through everything, correctly or incorrectly, so history and culture supply missing information and wisdom. Perhaps, progress and equality are illusions.
Era favored democracies, emotion and individualism in art, and feeling for the past.
Industrial Revolution favored democracies, large industries, social reform by government, continuous change, invention, practical applications, goods, Unitarian religion with Puritan ethics, energy, time, hygiene, and comfort.
Arts relied on national themes.
Russia and USA never fought but increased military strength to counter each other and vied to control other nations.
Israel and Damascus defeated King Shalmaneser III of Assyria.
Sargon II of New Assyrian Empire defeated Babylon.
Sennacherib of New Assyrian Empire destroyed Babylon.
Greece defeated Persia.
Greece defeated Persia.
Leonidas, king of Sparta, held pass against much larger Persian army but eventually was overcome.
Sparta eliminated Athens' ships.
Other Greek city-states defeated Sparta.
Philip II of Macedon defeated Athens and Thebes.
Alexander the Great of Macedonia crossed Dardanelles Strait and defeated Darius III of Persia. He then went to Bythnia and Cilicia.
Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius III of Persia. He then went to the Levant and Syria. He seized Tyre [-332]. Then he took Egypt and founded Alexandria.
Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius III of Persia.
Alexander the Great went to Mesopotamia and won at Gaugamela to take Persia from Darius III.
Seleucus I of Seleucid Dynasty in Persia defeated Antigonus I of Macedon.
Seleucus I of Seleucid Dynasty in Persia defeated Lysimachus of Macedon.
Roman Republic under Pyrrhus defeated Gauls.
In north Italy, Roman Republic defeated Gauls.
Carthage under Hannibal defeated Roman Republic.
Roman Republic defeated relief forces aiding Hannibal.
Roman Republic under Scipio Africanus Major defeated Carthage under Hannibal to end Second Punic War. Rome gained south Spain and north Africa.
In north Greece, Roman Republic defeated Philip V of Macedon.
Cimbri German tribe defeated Roman Republic under Quintus Caepio.
Roman Republic under Gaius Marius defeated Teutons.
Roman Republic under Gaius Marius defeated Cimbri.
Roman Republic under Sulla defeated Greece.
Roman Republic defeated Pontus.
Pompey, for Senate, lost to Julius Caesar, for the people, in Roman Republic civil war, ending republic and starting Roman Empire.
Octavian (later Augustus), his general Agrippa, and Roman general and Second Triumvirate member Marcus Antonius (Marc Anthony) defeated republican forces representing Senate and ruled Middle East.
Octavian (Augustus) defeated Marc Anthony and Cleopatra.
German tribes stopped Rome, eliminating three legions, at Rhine River in Germany. Romans put boundary across Europe {limes} at Rhine and Danube Rivers, with roads, camps for legions, and towers. At that time, Rome had 28 infantry legions with 160,000 men and as many men in cavalry and other units.
Roman Empire destroyed Maccabees, who had fled to Masada.
Persia defeated Rome and took Emperor Valerian prisoner.
Rome fell to Visigoths under Alaric I. Stilicho, a Vandal, led Roman Visigoth, Alan, and Hun army, but someone murdered him before battle.
Attila the Hun lost to Rome under Aetius, a Visigoth who commanded Visigoths, Franks, Celts, and Burgundians.
Odoacer, king of Vandals, came from Carthage and sacked Rome.
Western Roman Empire ended as Vandals under Odoacer sacked Rome second time and killed the western emperor, Romulus Augustus.
Moslem Empire defeated Persia under Yazdegard.
Moslem Empire defeated Persia under Yazdegard, ending Sassanian Dynasty. Zoroastrians fled Moslems, went to Gujerat Province in India, and became Parsees.
Omayyad Caliphs took Bukhara.
Charles Martel, king of Franks, defeated Moorish Kingdom.
Arabian Empire defeated Tang Dynasty, in Pamir Mountains.
Basques of north Spain defeated Charlemagne.
Eastern Frankish kingdom and Charles the Bold defeated Lothair I.
Harold I won and united small kingdoms, driving losers overseas.
Alfred, king of Wessex [871], defeated Vikings. Guthrum, Viking lord, kept England north half {Danelaw}.
Varangians took Kiev from Khazars.
All-e Buyeh of Persian Buyides took Baghdad.
Otto I of Saxony took Austria from Magyars near Augsburg. Bavaria added Austria as Eastern March. Slovakia became part of Hungary [955 to 1918].
Otto defeated Slavs.
Seljuk Turks under Toghrol or Tughril defeated Mas'ud of Ghaznavid Dynasty of Persia.
Ferdinand I, king of Castile, captured Coimbra from Moors.
Edward the Confessor died with no heir. He had promised throne to William, Duke of Normandy, but English nobles wanted Harold, Earl of Wessex. William the Conqueror of Normandy defeated Harold of England.
Normans and English defeated Norwegian invasion.
Seljuk Turks from Baghdad, under Toghrol, defeated Byzantine Empire and captured emperor.
Henry IV of Holy Roman Empire took Rome, forcing Pope Gregory VII to flee.
Peter the Hermit and Crusaders passed through Constantinople and Sultanate of Rum and took Jerusalem from Seljuk Turks.
Seljuk Turks lost Jerusalem to Byzantine Emperor Alexius I, Tancred, and Godfrey of Bouillon. Christians set up Kingdom of Jerusalem and founded County of Tripoli around Tripoli, Lebanon, and Principality of Antioch and County of Edessa around Maras, east of Tarsus. Sultanate of Rum still ruled Asia Minor and Turkey. Fatimids ruled undisturbed in Egypt.
Lombard League, for Pope Alexander I, defeated Frederick I of Holy Roman Empire.
Saladin of Saracens defeated Christians and captured Jerusalem, as Second Crusade failed.
Saladin of Saracens defended Jerusalem against Richard I of England, Philip II of France, and Third Crusade.
Spain and Portugal defeated the Berber Almohades. Only Granada remained Berber.
Genghis Khan captured Beijing.
Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire defeated Lombard League. This created Guelph cities and Ghibelline cities, which fought each other. Guelph cities were Bologna, Florence, Genoa, and Naples. Ghibelline cities were Rome, Verona, Milan, Pisa, and Arezzo. Papacy, supported by Guelphs, was against Holy Roman Empire, supported by Ghibellines.
Alexander Nevsky of Russia defeated Sweden.
Alfonso III of Portugal drove Moors from Spain.
Holuga Khan of Mongol Empire took Baghdad, and Maragheh became capital.
Mamelukes stopped Mongol attack on Syria, near Nazareth.
The count of Hainaut in Flanders defeated Duke of Burgundy.
Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated England under Edward II.
England defeated France at sea.
England, using longbows, defeated France.
England defeated France.
Edward the Black Prince, Duke of Cornwall, captured John II of France and gained Bordeaux.
Murad I or Amaruth I of Ottoman Turks took Adrianople from Byzantine Empire.
France defeated England at sea, and England lost Aquitaine.
Arteveldes, counts of Hainaut in Flanders, lost to duke of Burgundy.
Christian Serbia lost to Ottoman Turks.
Ottoman Empire, which was Moslem, defeated Bulgaria, which was Christian.
Tamerlane, Mongol from central Asia, and Timurids defeated Ottoman Empire.
Turkomans took Baghdad and western lands from Timurids.
England, under Henry V, and Burgundian allies defeated France under Louis, Duke of Orleans in Azincourt, north France. English used longbows. Professional soldiers began.
Tamerlane sacked Bursa, capital of Ottoman Turks.
France, led by Joan of Arc, defeated England.
France, led by Joan of Arc, defeated England.
Byzantine Empire defeated Serbia.
France defeated England.
France defeated England to end 100 Years War [1453]. Calais was still English.
Ottoman Turks under Mohammed II or Muhammed II or Mehmet II conquered Constantinople, ending Byzantine Empire by defeating Constantine XI. Knowledge of Greek philosophers reached Europe.
John Hunyadi and John Capistran of Hungary defeated Ottoman Empire. John Capistran became a Catholic saint.
Lithuania defeated Teutonic Knights.
Henry VII defeated last Plantagenet king, Richard III, and started Tudor line.
King Ferdinand V and Queen Isabella I of Spain defeated last Moors.
Francesco Gonzaga of Italy fought France in Italian Wars.
Portugal took Goa.
Switzerland lost at Marignano and began neutrality policy.
Ottoman Empire took Belgrade from Hungary.
Louis II of Hungary lost to Suleiman I the Magnificent of Ottoman Empire.
Muslim Ethiopians defeated Christian Ethiopians until 1543, when Portuguese troops defeated Muslim Ethiopians.
England lost Calais.
Venice and Spain stopped Ottoman Empire in Mediterranean off west Greece.
Ottoman Empire besieged Vienna and Austria. John III of Poland relieved Vienna but did not take Moldavia or Walachia from Ottoman Empire.
Francis Drake of England destroyed Spain's fleet.
Spanish Armada lost to England under Francis Drake.
Hideyoshi, Ieyasu, or Iyeyasu, of Toyotomi clan, defeated other barons and unified nation.
Frederick the Winter King and Protestant Bohemian princes lost to Spain and Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire.
John Churchill of England defeated Holy Roman Empire. Blenheim is in west Germany.
Oliver Cromwell of England ended ten-year rebellion in Ireland.
Poland defeated Sweden at Czestochowa monastery.
England defeated Ireland. England enacted more Penal Laws against Ireland.
Britain took Port Royal from France and settled in Acadia (Nova Scotia).
France defeated England.
Robert Clive of British East India Company defeated France, ending French influence in India. As governor of Bengal, he also got Behar, Calcutta, and Crissa for Britain.
Britain under Wolfe defeated France under Montcalm in French and Indian War.
Britain defeated USA.
Britain and USA fought second battle.
Britain lost to USA.
Battle between Britain and USA was first Revolutionary-War fighting {shot heard round the world}. When he looked at Old North Church to see the lights, "one if by land, two if by sea", Paul Revere saw one lantern and rode to get colonists ready {Paul Revere's ride}.
Britain failed to stop siege of Boston by USA under Washington and had to leave Boston.
USA under Washington failed in defense of New York City against British.
USA under Washington failed to save Philadelphia from British.
USA under Washington failed to save Philadelphia from British.
USA under Washington crossed Delaware River on Christmas to route Hessian (German) mercenaries at night.
USA under Washington crossed Delaware River on Christmas to route Hessian (German) mercenaries at night.
Ethan Allen successfully led Green Mountain Boys of USA against British.
Saratoga Campaign of Britain ended when General Burgoyne surrendered to General Gates of USA at Saratoga Springs.
General Clark defeated British who allied with American natives.
In Carolina campaign, General Cornwallis of Britain took Camden from USA.
Carolina campaign of Britain started with General Cornwallis of Britain taking Charleston from USA.
USA defeated Britain.
Yorktown campaign began when Cornwallis of Britain retreated to Yorktown, waiting for more soldiers. France blockaded Chesapeake Bay. USA under Washington marched to Yorktown, where Cornwallis surrendered.
France lost to Horatio Nelson and Britain, when French ships tried to go to India.
France occupied Egypt, but Britain and Ottoman Empire forced France out.
Horatio Nelson of England defeated Denmark.
France under Napoleon defeated Austria.
France defeated Austria in Napoleonic Wars.
Horatio Nelson of England defeated France.
France defeated Russia in north Germany.
France defeated Prussia in Napoleonic Wars.
France defeated Austria.
William Henry Harrison opened Ohio and Indiana to settlers by beating American natives.
Allies defeated Napoleon and sent him into exile on island of Elba.
USA, under Andrew Jackson, defeated Britain in War of 1812.
Napoleon escaped from Elba and rallied France. England under Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon. Napoleon went into exile on St. Helena Island.
Mohammed Ali of Egypt allied with Ottoman Empire and fought Greece and Wahabis of Arabia but lost.
Simon Bolivar led South America to victory over Spain.
Greece under president Capo d'Istrai defeated Ottoman Empire in Greek War of Independence and became independent.
Austria took free city of Cracow.
Abolitionist John Brown captured Harpers Ferry arsenal.
North defeated South.
David Farragut defeated Confederate ships to take New Orleans for Union. He then closed off Mobile Bay.
George Custer lost to Lakota and its allies under Chief Sitting Bull of the Hunkpapa Lakota.
General Crook lost to Teton Sioux.
Italy invaded Ethiopia but lost.
Greece fought Ottoman Empire to get Crete but failed.
Marshal Foch of France held back Germany.
Marshall Hindenburg of Germany defeated Russia and occupied Poland. He became commander of all Central Powers forces.
Pancho Villa took Mexico City from Diaz.
Henri Petain, marshal of France, stopped Germany.
Civil war in Russia ended as Reds or Bolsheviks and Red Army under Leon Trotsky defeated Whites or Mensheviks and government.
Italy took Fiume.
Kemal Ataturk stopped attacking Greece, captured Smyrna, and deposed Sultan of Ottoman Empire.
USA protected Allied ships from submarines.
Japan attacked without declaring war. USA declared war on Japan.
Rommel of Germany lost to Field Marshal Montgomery of Britain. Montgomery later commanded in north France.
British, French, and Indian soldiers surrendered to Japan.
USA defeated Japan.
USA decisively defeated Japan, as air power crippled Japanese fleet.
USA defeated Japan.
Germany reached Volvograd and Caucasia.
USA defeated Japan.
USA defeated Japan.
World War II ended in Europe as Allies entered Berlin from east and west. Germany had four zones.
USA dropped atomic bomb.
USA dropped atomic bomb.
Vietnam defeated France, and Vietnam divided into North Vietnam, which was Communist, and South Vietnam, which was republic.
North Vietnam took over South Vietnam.
In early Lower Paleolithic, Homo habilis chipped sharp flakes from larger stones {stone core}. They were meat eaters and hunter-gatherers.
Abbevillian or Chellean culture first half developed hammerstone technique for making stone tools. Percussion with hammer at edge back pops out semi-cones, leaving jagged edges and concave intersecting surfaces. Top was round and held in power grip.
In early Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus had symmetrical, teardrop-shaped, heavy stone choppers {hand axe} flaked on both sides [-750,000] in a bifacial blade, used for cutting, whittling, scraping, shredding, and butchering bone, antler, meat, hide, wood, and plants.
In Chellean-culture second half, a new stone-tool-making developed. Toolmaker hit stone against large anvil stone to make bigger tools than before.
In Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus developed cylinder-hammer technique for making stone tools. Wood branches, bones, or weathered stones are softer hammers to spread percussion, to give wide arcs to cones, with less-jagged edges. This technique did not make original edge but finished the blade.
In Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus invented prepared core technique.
In Middle Paleolithic, Homo sapiens had flaked and chipped stone tools and knives, used stone hand ax, used bone tools, and used wooden spears. They hafted handles on tools. They did little carving or polishing. Nomads built cooking fires and lived in caves, with few dwellings. They gathered food and hunted animals. They buried the dead and began painting and sculpture.
Homo neanderthalensis in Upper Paleolithic was similar to Mousterian and Aurignacian cultures of Homo sapiens.
In Upper Paleolithic, Homo sapiens tried new stone-tool-making forms. Cro Magnons painted cave walls in France and Spain.
Homo sapiens reached Australia from Southeast Asia by boat. Aborigines (early inhabitants) fished near coasts. Giant animals became extinct: giant kangaroo, marsupial diprotodont, marsupial leopard, giant python, giant lizard, and 400-pound bird.
Nomads depended on families, were herders, and domesticated sheep and dogs. Nomads used barbed harpoons, bows and arrows, fishhooks, fishnets, and fish traps. They used flint master tools, adz, straightening tool, woodworking tools, ice picks, sickles, mortars and pestles, sledges, combs, and needles. They had baskets, leather, paving, and handicrafts. They did not store goods. They had sacrifices but no rituals or burials. They built pyramid mounds. They used swastika symbol for luck [Bronowski, 1974].
Culture began.
Upper Paleolithic culture was in west Europe.
Homo erectus lived.
Upper Paleolithic culture was in west Europe.
Culture began.
Homo erectus lived in caves in Lang Son and Nghe An provinces.
The first people, Nayuhyunggi, lived in the Dreamtime, which had mythical beings who lived deep underground. Paintings are on Ubirr Rock and in caves.
Upper-Paleolithic Grimaldi man had culture similar to Bushmen, Hottentots, and Aborigines.
Culture began.
Culture was in south Tasmania and had stone tools.
Upper Paleolithic cave paintings in France and Spain have animals and hands. Perhaps, paintings overcame fear of animals, idealized experience, expressed feeling, or were play.
Upper Paleolithic peoples were Amerindian, Polynesian, Scandinavian, or African. They used hearth.
Upper Paleolithic stone blades and scraping tools were made.
Neolithic culture was in west Europe.
Culture began.
Mongoloid peoples crossed from Siberia into Alaska over Bering Strait. Sea level was lower during Ice Age, and no glacier was on low-lying Bering Strait. Two glaciers over Canada forced people to travel down valley from Yukon River to United-States region.
Perhaps, people traveled along Pacific Coast in small boats from Southeast Asia.
Perhaps, people traveled from Iberia across North Atlantic Ocean by boat, taking with them Solutrean technology [-22000 to -14000].
Perhaps, people traveled from Australia through islands across South Pacific Ocean by boat.
People settled along Nile River in Egypt, as rain increased as ice age receded.
Neolithic campsite in south Chile had 30 people, who left footprints and used stone spearpoints, animal hides, and wooden things.
Culture began.
Neolithic Tepexpan man was in Central Valley of Mexico.
Culture began.
Culture began.
Culture began.
Luzia skull was at Neolithic site.
Culture began.
Culture was near Nagasaki.
Arlington Springs woman was at Neolithic site.
Neolithic Amerindian peoples used large fluted stone spear points and hunted big game.
Neolithic Amerindian peoples used side scrapers, stones for woodworking, fluted stone points, and hearths. Forests were pine, not hardwood.
Culture began.
Neolithic peoples were Amerindian, Polynesian, Scandinavian, or African. They ate deer, rabbit, snake, nuts, berries, fish, and turtles. They had hearths, baskets, nets, wooden tools, and skin or wood boats. They were in southwest Pennsylvania.
Culture began.
Basques have lived in Spain since Stone Age.
Neolithic Germanic tribes went to south Sweden.
Culture began.
Animal carvings and paintings were probably to ensure good hunting and herding. Animals, spirals, triangles, circles, squares, and mazes were in early Neolithic paintings. Artists drew line, dot, and symbol patterns for rain, lightning, and wind, but not for Sun or Moon, in middle Neolithic era. Fertility symbols appeared in late Neolithic.
Matriarchal societies had few sexual taboos, did not treat illegitimate children badly, had less emphasis on property, were more vegetarian, and did not have possessive love.
Culture hunted bison.
Culture was early Neolithic hunters.
Culture had early Neolithic hunters.
Culture was early Neolithic hunters.
Flint sickles cut wild wheat. They cooked bread.
Small settlements were on coast, at river mouths, or at mountain bottoms. Homes were huts half in ground. Roofs had branches and leaves. They ate shellfish, hunted mammals, and gathered berries and nuts.
Neolithic culture was at Hecate Strait.
Kennewick man was at Neolithic site.
Neolithic people were hunters and food gatherers, including grain.
Magician shamans dealt in trances, dead, animal spirits, and making pictures. Shamans were in Scandinavian, Finno-Ugric, and American Indian cultures. Aborigines had magic-power symbols {Tjurunga}. Bushmen believed in the Great Spirit, symbolized by praying mantis.
Halaf culture precede Ubaid culture.
First chiefdoms began.
Neolithic culture had first Chinese language written characters. It used agriculture based on millet, which grows well in arid land Later, millet grew in north China. It had jade and woodcarving. Clans kept land and had kinship patterns.
Neolithic culture had large settlements, had large temples, had sailboats, used trade, used copper, and fired clay. One settlement was Tell Zeidan, in northern Syria, on the Balikh River, which had irrigation, social classes, and political leaders and traded with far towns. Tepe Gawra was in the north Iraq. Ubaid, Eridu, and Oueli were in the south.
Culture was in north Chile.
Culture began.
Culture was in southwest USA.
Sumerian language started.
Neolithic farmers used digging sticks and later plows pulled by oxen in central Europe.
Culture began.
Bronze-Age Uruk, Ur, and Nineveh cities had mud public buildings, priests, writing, agricultural organization, irrigation, pottery, and metalworking.
Neolithic Caucasian peoples from Georgia and Caucasus lived in Fertile Crescent.
Caribbean islands became populated.
Culture was Neolithic hunter-gatherers in southeast Asia.
Neolithic culture had pottery, hollowed out canoes, and used bark beater to make rope, nets, and cloth.
Culture had stone rings and ceramics.
Neolithic Semitic peoples from Arabia occupied central Mesopotamia, at Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Fertile Crescent [-4000 to -2000] [Durant and Durant, 1967] [Roberts, 1994] [Toynbee, 1961] [Wells, 1920].
Culture was in Chilca River valley and was maritime.
Culture was on Canada northwest coast.
Neolithic Semitic peoples were in Egypt [-3500].
Upper Egypt had wall paintings and pottery. Egypt began unification at end of Naqada culture.
Bronze-Age Semitic city was near upper Euphrates River and near Khabur River. It had fortifications around city and used sun-dried mud brick and stone terraces for temples.
Neolithic culture Indo-European peoples from south Russia entered Iran.
Neolithic culture Indo-European peoples from south Russia entered Anatolia [-3000 to -2000]. It occupied area from Black Sea to Syria [-2300 to -1700].
Tuareg were Hamitic, and Europoid were forebears of Berbers. They lived on savanna and used hippopotamus, elephant, cattle, sheep, and goats. They drew cave paintings of daily life. Sahara rivers flow into Lake Chad (Lake Tchad) or Niger River.
Megalith was for seasonal festivals.
Neolithic Indo-European people from Aeolia reached Attica and Peloponnesus, replaced Pelasgoi people, used sheep and chariots, and had patriarchy.
Culture put drinking cups in warrior graves.
Paloma was port in Chilca River valley.
Population and production increased at Joman period peak [-9000 to -300].
Neolithic culture was in south Siberia.
Bronze Age rock carvings were made.
Inuits, Arctic Small Tool people, hunted caribou, whale, and seal.
Scythians bred horses to invade Near East.
Hebrew means wanderer. Semitic Hebrews came to Palestine, probably from Ur [-1800]. The legendary Joshua led Israelites into Palestine [-1400]. Traditionally, Hebrews had exodus from Egypt [-1300 to -1200].
Indo-European Aryan nomads from Iran had horses, chariots, and bronze weapons. They entered through Hindu Kush and moved to Indus and upper Ganges Rivers by -1700. They used wood, not bricks. By -600, there were many kingdoms. They grew rice in Ganges River valley and had coins, elephants, and writing.
Aryans had four sacred books {Vedas} [-1500 to -500], which mainly describe public and family sacrifice rituals. Indus religion combined with Vedas in early Hinduism. The three most important Hindu gods are Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Shiva the destroyer, who rules over life and death. They used Sanskrit language.
Hundreds of castes evolved, in which people worked, married, performed rituals, and ate special foods. Brahmins were priests of Vedic religion. Soldier and farmer castes also existed. Dravidians were all in lowest caste.
Hindu gods began. Agni was god of fire. Varuna was god of heaven and justice. Indra was god of war and water. Vishnu was god. People sacrificed to gods. Culture had child marriages and used sutlee.
Culture formed pottery.
Culture practiced horticulture.
Australoid and Mongoloid peoples came from southeast Asia and Australia, went to Micronesia [-1500 to 400], and then continued to Polynesia [300]. They built stone temples [1000].
Kingdom resisted Thotmes III of Egypt in east Syria and north Mesopotamia.
Culture was on Peru central coast.
Achaeans went to islands and coast of Asia Minor (Ionia) and became Ionians, who lived south of Aeolians in coastal towns of Ephesus, Miletus, and Didyma, and islands of Chios and Samos.
Indo-Europeans came to Greece and settled in south Peloponnesus (Laconia), Greek islands, and Knossus, Crete.
Culture used iron and artistic terra-cotta pottery [-900].
Indo-Europeans settled in Canaan.
First chiefdoms began.
Ainu came to Japan when Japan connected to Asia, before Jomon period [-10,000 to -300], and lived in north Honshu and south Hokkaido.
Culture herded sheep and cattle.
Culture hunted and did not farm. Bantu-speaking peoples from Cameroon took over [-100].
quadrennial multi-sport competition {Olympic Games}.
Culture lived in open areas from Sahara to south tip.
Culture lived in central and western forests of Africa.
Culture lived in small south-Africa region.
Altai is in west Siberia.
Only Pyramid of Cheops remains. Pharos is near Alexandria.
Sarnathians displaced Scythians.
Gauls were Celts. Gaul had three parts: Aquitaine in southwest France, Gaul in central France, and Belgica in Belgium.
Road was between China and Europe.
Germanic tribe of Chatti lived on Rhine River.
German and Celt tribes were in northeast Gaul at Rhine River and fought Caesar.
Germanic tribe lived in north Netherlands and Germany.
Bantu speakers moved from east Nigeria through Congo to south Africa. Zanz (Zanzibar) had gold, iron, and copper. Arabians, Indonesians, and Chinese traded goods and slaves with each other.
Caribs were cannibals and used Tupi language. Zemis were their spirit powers.
Farming people from Paraguay traveling Amazon River and coast of Brazil to Venezuela settled West Indies. They used Tupi language. They grew maize, sugar cane, manioc {starch root}, cassava, and sweet potato.
Bohemians were Celts.
Czechs were Celts.
Walach is Slavic name for southeast-Europe Romance-language peoples, such as Romanians and Dacians.
Khazars moved to Caucasia [100]. They then settled near Volga River in south Russia [500 to 600]. Khazars took Crimea [600 to 700]. Khazar Empire ended in south Russia, when it lost to Duke of Kiev [969].
Germanic Rhenish tribe moved inside the limes, pushed by Huns from the Han Empire of Hsing-Nu.
Goths were Germanic tribes, supposedly descended from south-Sweden Gotar tribe. Goths settled Volga River and south Russia [200 to 300]. Goths came inside the limes at Danube River in Germany [251]. Ostrogoths or East Goths stayed. Visigoths or West Goths went west to Danube River and into Austria [400]. Romans took some German tribes, such as Goths in north Balkans, into service as foederati [600].
Culture began when Huns, Mongoloid tribes from north-central Asia, broke though refortified Great Wall of China, overthrew Han Dynasty, and took China, using horse stirrups [220 to 581]. Their era had many small wars and no central administration.
Franks are Celts. Franks came to Gaul and Switzerland inside the limes at Rhine River, as Huns came from east.
Culture was in southeast Africa.
Huns settled Volga River and south Russia [300 to 400].
Angles were Germanic tribes that had come to Roman domains in Britain and north Gaul.
Saxons were Germanic tribes that came to Roman domains [300 to 400]. Saxons entered north Gaul [400 to 500]. Saxons entered Britain [420 to 450].
Slavs settled east of Elbe River [300 to 500]. Slavs settled in Balkans [602]. Slavs moved into Greece from area of Poland and Russia [620 to 700]. West Slavs were Moravians, Poles, Czechs, and Slovaks. East Slavs were Great and White Russians. South Slavs were Serbs, Croats, and Bulgars. They attacked Germany and divided it into feudal domains [900 to 962].
Culture built large adobe-brick houses, with 200 to 300 rooms, using wooden frames six stories high, near riverbeds. Courtyard had roofed-over circular pit for men's ceremonies to gods.
People came to Scandinavia.
From central Asia, it invaded Volga River area and Black Sea coast [372]. It invaded lower Danube River area [376]. Invasions caused Goths and other tribes to migrate toward Roman Empire.
Culture occupied Hungary [372 to 450].
Visigoths defeated Romans and killed Emperor Valens [378]. Visigoths under Alaric II lost to Franks [412 to 414]. King Alaric besieged Rome until it gave up [410 to 429]. Visigoths under Euric and Alaric II fought Vandals in Italy. Visigoths moved to south France and defeated Vandals, and then, under Alaric II, pushed them out of Spain [429]. Visigoths took Lusitania (Portugal). Visigoths then merged with Spanish-Roman peoples.
Lombard Germanic tribe attacked north Italy [395]. Lombards moved into Austria [400 to 500].
Cimmerians lived from east Europe down to Asia Minor.
Avars settled Volga River and south Russia.
Bavarians moved into Austria.
Jutes Germanic tribe was in northwest Germany [400 to 500]. Jutes entered Britain [420].
Suebi took Lusitania.
Germanic Alemanni tribe moved into Switzerland.
Germanic Burgundii tribe moved into Switzerland.
German tribal immigrations divided Britain into England, Scotland, and Wales. German tribes became monarchies.
Pallavas of Conjeeveran flourished.
Alans crossed Rhine and moved into Spain.
Suevi crossed Rhine and moved into Spain.
Vandals, Germanic tribe, crossed Rhine and moved into Spain [406]. After Visigoths pushed them out of Spain, Vandals conquered north Africa [429 to 439]. Under Gaiseric, they took Carthage after moving through Gaul, Spain, and north Africa [439]. They then controlled Mediterranean. Capital was at Carthage.
Turks or Tibetans, under khan, lived from Oxus River to Mongolia, speaking Turkish language [425]. White Huns took Persia [483]. White Huns took over Gupta Empire [544].
Ostrogoths occupied Hungary [450 to 650]. Theodoric the Great and Ostrogoths took Italy after defeating Odoacer and Vandals [493].
Local assemblies {Thing} met from 450 through 16th century.
Huns conquered east Italy [452]. Huns then merged with other European peoples.
Magyars were from Ural Mountains and came to Caucasia [460]. Magyar nomads from central Asia, led by Arpad, moved west into Hungary and Romania [895]. Magyars overran Moravian Empire [900 to 962], and attacked Germany and divided it into feudal domains [962].
Finns lived in east Scandinavia.
Germanic tribes came to Sweden in Neolithic times and became Gotar.
Lapps lived in north Scandinavia.
Svear Germanic tribe defeated Gotar tribe in south Sweden.
Thule people moved into Alaska.
Moravian West Slavs settled in Czechoslovakia. Other West Slavs settled in Slovakia and Silesia. West Slavs did not migrate.
Nomadic central Asian people destroyed Gupta Empire [500 to 515].
Polynesians came from east Polynesia [500 to 600]. Ships were two hulls bound together. They navigated by observing star movements, wave patterns, and wind changes.
Culture was on Peru north coast, and culture was like that of Tiahuanaco and Pachacamas, ancient religious centers.
Serbs settled in Bosnia and Montenegro [500 to 700]. It converted to Eastern Orthodox Church [800 to 900].
Culture was in west Africa. Causative substance that is eternal and unchanging exists everywhere. Different amounts and modes formed all things, in a hierarchy of being, with different energies and forms.
Culture was in west Africa. Dense mass has motions and patterns, making air, fire, water, and earth, and from them come society and mind.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA. Cherokee had an alphabet, built special houses for chiefs and elders, and built small temples for nature gods.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA. River mouth had temples for wood and clay images, 3000 people, and 1000 warriors. Castes were chiefs, priests, citizens, second-class citizens, and slaves.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture was in east USA.
Neolithic culture had no agriculture but had villages. Large villages had chiefs, householders, and slaves. Tribes had twelve villages with large wood houses.
Fish, game, berries, and roots were abundant. Fish were for oil.
Spruce and cedar tree roots supplied textile fibers.
Dugout canoes were 3 meters x 25 meters.
Marriages were with affiliated clan. Totems were clan symbols. Myths were about virtues of totem animals: raven, bear-mother, earth frog, eagle, and wolf. Old women were storytellers.
In north-central USA were Apache, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche, Cree, Creek, Crow, Dakota, Omaha, Pawnee, Shawnee, Shoshoni, Sioux, and Ute. Plains Indians hunted bison and grew beans, squash, and maize in river valleys. Pemmican was lard beaten with berries, packed in tanned leather parfleche pouch. People had wood frame houses covered with earth, with smoke holes in center, up to 20 meters wide or bison-leather teepees.
Culture was in east USA.
Culture lived in adobe and wood multistoried houses. Zuni pueblos used dried clay. Navajo pueblo hogans were round dome-like wood frames covered by clay. Hopi built kiva pueblos. Clan-chief councils and discussions governed the pueblo. Pueblo culture grew squash, gourds, maize, and fruit trees, ground corn on flat metates stones, and ate half-wild turkeys. It formed pottery and spun cotton. Men wove blankets.
Bedouins were native Semitic nomads.
Croatians settled Croatia [600 to 700]. They converted to Catholicism [800 to 900].
Polynesians settled Easter Island [600 to 1300]. They grew sweet potatoes, taro, bananas, and gourds and had chickens and pigs. They built rectangular platforms {ahu} along coast.
Avars occupied Hungary.
Bulgars were probably Huns. Bulgars took Slavic Thrace and Moesia [660]. Krum was early leader. Bulgars from Volga River and south Russia settled south of Danube River [675].
Polynesians settled Cook Islands [700]. Stone temple complexes {marae} were in Rarotonga, Cook Islands, and Moorea Island, Society Islands [1300].
Arabian empire did not take the mountainous north.
Avars took Bohemia.
East Slavs settled in west Russia.
Culture converted to Catholicism.
Culture converted to Catholicism.
Culture was in southwest Africa.
Bantu came from southeast Africa.
From north Russia, they took south Russia. Prince Igor fought against them.
From central Asia, they moved into south Russia.
Quimbaya cannibal tribe spoke Chibcha language.
Sinu cannibal tribe spoke Chibcha language.
Maori people settled North Island, New Zealand [1000] and settled at river mouths, such as Wairau Bar [1150], in north South Island. It had terraced fortifications {pa, fortification} [1350] and later built fortresses [1550 to 1560].
It has Yoruba language and Orisha religion and is mainly in southwest Nigeria.
Polynesians settled Pitcairn Islands [1100 to 1200].
Culture had valley irrigation and class structure [1250]. Later, it used wet taro [1400 to 1500].
Malinke were Mande speakers.
Culture started when Tatars or Tartars, Mongoloid tribes from east-central Asia and central Siberia, took east Russia and defeated Cumans. They got tribute from west Russian princes and occupied Crimea.
Polynesians settled by a lagoon in north Tongatapu, the largest island. Tui Tonga dynasty, of Mu'a district in northeast Tongatapu, ruled and built ceremonial center at Mu'a [1400]. It had ditch and bank enclosing platforms with houses for chief families and their servants. Few Polynesian societies had classes. At ceremonies, root-based kava drink caused drowsiness. New dynasty ruled [1500]. Later, Tui Kanokupolu dynasty ruled, as it does now.
Creek and Hitchiti tribes migrated to Florida.
Culture built totem poles depicting three generations [1880] and became wealthy from fur trade with Americans.
Neolithic culture was first legendary dynasty. Shen-nung, legendary king, taught cultivation techniques to humans.
Iron Age 13th to 17th dynasties were probably Semitic, had iron weapons, and had iron-wheeled chariots. They attacked the pharaoh at Thebes.
Dynasty was the 25th Dynasty of Egypt.
Dynasty ended when Assyrians took Lower Egypt.
First Psamtik and then Necho ruled. Sais, Memphis, and Heliopolis were cities.
Secular kings united north India, formed provinces under strong administration, and disarmed and split subject peoples.
Dynasty started when Ch'in tribe took Szechwan. Hsien Yang was capital. They used iron long sword.
After Alexander the Great died, Ptolemy I, general of Alexander, got Egypt and then defeated Antigonus I of Macedon in Wars of the Diadochi.
Zheng or Cheng, king of Qin, formed China's first united empire.
Liu family started Han dynasty. Confucianism became official, and civil service required knowledge of Confucian texts. It standardized Confucian documents [-200] and wrote dictionary and history. It used coins, had census, and registered land for land taxes. District governors had staff and official compounds {yamen}. Great Wall lengthened. Buddhism came to China. Silk Road started [-100].
After Ptolemy IV, kingdom declined.
Brhadratha ended Maurya Dynasty. Pusyamitra took India back to Hinduism.
Maccabees first ruled Palestine under control of Syria. Judas the Maccabee and his brothers took Judah's capital, Jerusalem [-166], from Syria. They saved and rededicated Temple at Jerusalem.
Han dynasty of China conquered and ruled until defeated by Ngo Quyen dynasty of Vietnam.
Dynasty ended when conquered by Rome.
Dynasty ended when Octavian or Augustus defeated Egypt under Cleopatra and Anthony at Actium and then at Alexandria, destroying library.
Wang Mang, nephew of the Han empress, usurped emperor [9].
Dynasty started when Ardashir I revolted against Parthians and reunited Persia. Ctesiphon was capital. Rey and Hamadan were main cities. Sasan and Bahram Gur were famous Sassanid kings. In feudal systems, four classes were under king: priests {Magi} and government officials, warriors, bureaucrats and scholars, and workers. The four provinces, each with governor {marzuban}, were Persia, Transoxania to north, Kushana to northeast, and Gupta Dynasty to east.
Gupta Dynasty ruled Magadha and Ganges River valleys. It used decimal system. Vedanta began. It established Hinduism and castes. It built many stone temples. Religious festivals used large wheeled carts {juggernaut cart}. Funerals for husbands also burned their wives {suttee}. Culture had child marriages, rituals, and meditation. Art flourished. Dramas based on epics began. It possibly ended in 467.
Yamato clan, led by Shinto priest-chief, organized Japan. First emperor supposedly descended from sun goddess. All emperors of Japan trace back to that emperor.
Huns entered India and caused dynasty to decline.
Dynasty reunited China. Canal system linked Yangtze, Yellow, and Hangchow Rivers.
Arabian Empire ended it by conquering Iran.
Dynasty of Moslem Empire started when Muawiya assassinated the fourth caliph, Ali, and deposed Hassan and Hussein, sons of Ali [661]. It ended when Abu Muslem of Khorassan revolted against Marwan II, the 14th caliph [750].
Dynasty ended when Abbasid leader Abu Muslem of Khorassan revolted against Marwan II, the 14th Omayyed caliph and killed all Omayyeds except Abdu-r-Rahman I.
Dynasty started when Abu Muslem of Khorassan revolted against Marwan II, 14th caliph of Moslem Empire. Abu Muslem named Abu'l-Abbas-as-Saffash first Abbasid caliph. Abu'l-Abbas-as-Saffash descended from Abbas, uncle of Mohammed, and from Ali, son-in-law of Mohammad. Abu Muslem moved capital to Baghdad. Dynasty ended when Hulagu Khan of Mongols overthrew Abbasid Dynasty.
Aghladbid dynasty founded colony in Sicily [827 to 902] and invaded south Italy.
Jayavarman II, Khmer king, founded it and built large temple complexes.
Dynasty began when Taherids under Taher Zolyaminayn and his sons Talha and Abd Allah revolted against Moslem Empire. Naishapur was capital. They paid tribute to Caliphs at Baghdad.
Dynasty featured trial of Afshin.
Dynasty began when Saffarids under Ya'ghub Layce Saffar or the Coppersmith revolted in Sistan and defeated Taherids. Caliph approved Saffar's brother Amir.
Dynasty began when Samanids under the brothers Nasr and Esmail, sons of Saman Khudat, who was under Caliph Mamun's protection, revolted and defeated Saffarids.
Dynasty ended when beaten by Saffarids.
Samanids controlled from China to Kermanshah. Nasr and Nooh, sons of the brothers Nasr and Esmail, built schools at Naishapur and Bukhara. They also reestablished court of Sassanids.
Guelph family rose in importance.
Dynasty had only Afghanistan and northeast Iran.
Dynasty ended when Saffar's brother Amir lost to Samanids after he attacked them.
Five Dynasties followed Tang Dynasty and had disorder.
Dynasty forced China out [939] but Dinh dynasty of Vietnam replaced it [965].
Dynasty was in north China.
House of Brandenburg or Ottonians ruled upper and lower Austria.
Dynasty replaced Ngo Huyen dynasty of Vietnam until overcome by Pre Le dynasty of Vietnam.
Dynasty began when Albtakin gained rule of Ghazneh.
Dynasty began in south Poland under first Piast King Boleslaus I.
Dynasty came from Tunis, conquered Tulunid dynasty, and built Cairo as capital. al-Azhar University began in Cairo.
Dynasty replaced Dinh dynasty of Vietnam until overcome by Le dynasty of Vietnam. Le Hoan repulsed Sung dynasty of China [981].
Dynasty began when Hugh Capet deposed Carolingian line and became king of France. Capetians tried to control nobles and build commerce. France had Aquitaine, Gascony, Burgundy, Catalonia, Languedoc, and Provence.
Dynasty replaced Pre Le dynasty of Vietnam. Ly Thuong Kiet repulsed Sung dynasty of China [1075 to 1077]. It ended when replaced by Tran dynasty of Vietnam.
Boleslaus III reunited Poland, but his succession law split it again. Casimir II, Piast, ruled Duchy of Cracow after Boleslaus III died. Silesia and Bohemia became part of Poland.
Dynasty replaced caliph of Cordoba.
Seljuk Turks reduced it.
Guelph family ruled Bavaria and Saxony, struggled against Hohenstaufen emperors, allied with the pope in Lombard League, and controlled cities of Florence, Genoa, and Bologna. Hanover family came from Guelph family.
Hohenstaufens and Ghibellines fought Papacy and Guelphs.
Ludovisi family ruled Rome.
Savoy family ruled Piedmont, Savoy, and Turin.
Wanyan Aguda or Okota of Jurchen or Nuzhen tribe took Khitan, and his successor took K'ai-feng from Sung.
Dynasty was in north China.
Ghibellines, Hohenstaufen faction, controlled Verona, Milan, Pisa, and Romano and struggled against Guelph cities.
Angevins ruled several kingdoms. It ruled Hungary from 1308 to 1386.
Berber Almohades invaded Spain.
Dynasty ruled part of India.
Dynasty controlled emperors at Kyoto. However, civil war among Fujiwara, Taira, and Minamoto clans followed.
Dynasty was in Ethiopian highlands.
Empire of Kiev broke up, but House of Rurik still ruled Kiev.
Dynasty was branch of Angevin line and had Henry II, Richard I, John, Henry III, Edward I, Edward II, Edward II, and Richard II.
Dynasty began when Saladin of Saracens, who were Sunni Moslems, overthrew Fatimite caliph Nureddim. He took Tunisia, Arabia, Yemen, and Syria [1174]. He took Mesopotamia [1185]. He took Palestine and captured Jerusalem [1187], at Battle of Hattim, as Second Crusade failed. He retook Latin states [1189], which First Crusade had established. He defended territory against Third Crusade, but Richard I of England took and held Tyre [1191] and Philip Augustus of France took Acre [1191 to 1192].
Crusaders kept Tyre, Tortosa, Krak des Chevaliers, and Mu'arrat al-Nu'man.
Berber Almohades took over from Berber Almoravids.
Hohenzollern family of Germany divided into Swabian line and Franconian line.
Kutb-ud-din, Afghan general, took Delhi and established Moslem dynasty.
Holy Roman Empire took south Italy and Sicily and fought the pope.
Silesia divided into areas ruled by various Piasts.
Dynasty built coral platform for ceremonies.
Barberini family ruled Rome.
Hapsburg counts controlled part of Switzerland.
Savoy counts controlled part of Switzerland.
Livonian Brothers of the Sword were German. Bishop Albert of Livonia and Pope Innocent III started them [1202]. Lithuanians defeated them at Battle of Schaulen or Saule [1236], and they merged with Teutonic Knights. In Livonian War, Moscow defeated them at Battle of Ergeme [1560].
Dynasty replaced Ly dynasty of Vietnam. Ports were at Hoi Thong and Van Don. Tran Hung Dao and other Tran kings repulsed Mongol Empire of China [1258, 1285, 1288]. It ended when replaced by Ho dynasty of Vietnam.
Nasrids of Granada ruled last Moslem city in Spain.
Este family ruled Guelph cities Ferrara and Modena and built Villa d'Este at Tivoli.
Dynasty ended when Mamelukes took Egypt.
First Mameluke dynasty had Turks and Mongols.
The Guelph condottiero Malatesta da Verucchio [1212 to 1312] founded it [1295 to 1312]. Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta [1417 to 1468] built Tempio Malatestiano but lost all territory [1463] except Rimini. Cesare Borgia took Rimini [1500]. Rimini became part of Holy See in 1528.
Il-khan were offshoots of Mongol rulers.
Dynasty ended when Hulagu Khan of Mongols overthrew it. Abbasids fled to Egypt and took over that caliphate, with Mamelukes.
It is Plantagenet branch. Edmund, Henry III's son, ruled [1267 to 1296], followed by Henry IV [1399 to 1413], Henry V [1413 to 1422], and Henry VI [1422 to 1461] [1470 to 1471].
Someone murdered last Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy Roman Empire.
Bourbon family began.
Dynasty was Ghibelline.
Dynasty ruled Holy Roman Empire and Austria.
Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate.
Douglas family had older Black branch and younger Red branch.
Dynasty ended.
Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate under Tughlak.
Valois family ruled France directly [1328 to 1498] or collaterally. Valois kings were John II, Charles V, Charles VI, Charles VII, Louis XI, and Charles VIII. Louis XII was of Valois-Orleans line.
Luigi Gonzaga [1267 to 1360] became captain general of Mantua [1328] under Holy Roman Empire. After War of the Spanish Succession [1708], Hapsburg Austria got Mantua and Savoy got Montferrat. Gonzaga Castle is near Mantua.
In south Poland, Casimir III the Great was last Piast and consolidated king's power.
Ghara-Ghoyunlu line ruled northeast Iran.
New line of Mamelukes ended Bahrite Dynasty.
Shan chiefs ruled Burma.
Dynasty replaced Tran dynasty of Vietnam. It ended when beaten by Minh dynasty of China.
When Charles VI became insane, Louis, Duke of Orleans, caused civil war between south-France Armagnacs and east-France Burgundians. He started Valois-Orleans kings. Burgundians allied with Henry V of England when he invaded and defeated Louis, forcing Treaty of Troyes, which gave Normandy to Henry V.
Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate.
Dynasty ruled electorate of Brandenburg.
Savoy family ruled Savoy and parts of France and Italy.
Under Le Loi, it fought Minh dynasty of China for 10 years, winning under Nguyen Trai. It ended when beaten by Mac Dang Dung.
Merchants and bankers upheld democracy in Florence and patronized art. They also ruled Siena and Tuscany.
Ludovico Sforza took over Duchy of Milan.
Dynasty ruled Delhi Sultanate.
Borgia family ruled Rome and papacy.
York family ruled Britain.
Agh-Ghoyunlu line ruled northeast Iran.
Sture were regents.
Civil war began again in 1493.
Dynasty had Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I.
Dynasty ruled Poland, Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary.
Toungoo Dynasty, which was native, took over from Shan chiefs.
Dynasty started under Shah Isma'il Safavi.
Dynasty started with Francis I, followed by Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III.
Dynasty had Gustavus I, Eric XIV, Charles IX, Gustavus II, Christina, Charles X, and Charles XI.
Hapsburg kings of Austria began rule of Bohemia.
John I Zapolya or John Sigismund [1487 to 1571] was king of Hungary [1526 to 1540]. John II Zapolya or John Sigismund Zapolya was king of Hungary and prince of Transylvania [1540 to 1571].
Mac Dang Dung defeated Le dynasty of Vietnam. Capital was Phu Xuan, now Hue. It ended when beaten by the brothers Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Lu, and Nguyen Hue. Le Chieu Thong asked Qin dynasty of China for help but Nguyen Hue defeated it [1789] at Thang Long.
In 1545, it was most powerful.
Dynasty began when King Ferdinand I of Austria fought Zapolya family and gained Hungary.
William the Silent of House of Nassau was first Orange king.
Shah Abbas I took land from Ottoman Empire and organized state.
Stuarts were James I, Charles I, Charles II, and James II.
Hideyoshi founded dynasty when he defeated other barons. Edo or Yedo (Tokyo) was capital.
Dynasty controlled Papacy and Rome.
Dynasty started when nobles elected Michael Romanov Tsar of Russia.
Hohenzollern Electors of Brandenburg ruled Prussia.
Barberini family was powerful in Italy.
Holy Roman Empire (Austria) regained control of Bohemia.
Dynasty ended when Mahmud and Afghans defeated them.
Dynasty controlled 1/4 of all land and supervised the rest through lesser rulers {daimyo}. Travel abroad halted, it banned large ships, and trade declined. Agriculture flourished. Towns grew, so Tokyo had 800,000 people by 1700. It persecuted missionaries and Christians, who numbered approximately 500,000.
Schönborn family ruled in Germany and patronized art.
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha family began. It later ruled Britain [1901 to 1918].
Hanover family, descended from Guelph family, ruled in Germany.
Hanover kings were George I, George II, George III, George IV, and Victoria.
Dynasty started under Nader Afshar or Nader Shah, who defeated Afghans and Ottoman Empire and invaded India, taking Koh-i-noor diamond and Peacock Throne.
Dynasty started under Karim Khan Zand. Shiraz was capital.
Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Lu, and Nguyen Hue brothers fought Mac dynasty and established Tay Son dynasty of Vietnam. It defeated Siam [1785] at Rach Gam Soai Mut. It then defeated Trinh dynasty in Dang Ngoai. Nguyen Hue became king [1788] and defeated Qin dynasty of China [1789].
Dynasty started under Agha Mohammad Ghajar.
After the brothers Nguyen Nhac, Nguyen Lu, and Nguyen Hue fought Mac dynasty, Nguyen Hue became king [1788]. King renamed capital Hue. He defeated Qin dynasty of China [1789]. It ended when Nguyen Anh and French took Mekong delta.
Persia lost Caucasia to Russia.
Dynasty led German Empire.
First Mongkut was king, and then Chulalongkorn followed.
England and Russia controlled Qajar Iran.
Family changed from German name Wetlin to Windsor: George V, Edward VIII, George VI, and Elizabeth II.
Dynasty ended when Iran became independent.
Zircon crystal from west Australia proves that continental crust was there. Granite crust can only form in liquid water. Atmosphere had mostly carbon dioxide.
Azoic gneiss rocks, the oldest rocks, formed underground and are now in cliffs along Acasta River in northwest Canada.
After continents began, volcanoes made basalt and andesite rocks. Oceans were warm and had high sedimentation. Era ended with first great catastrophe or revolution, of unknown cause.
Rocks are in mountain cores exposed by erosion, high-plateau gorges cut by water, or exposed continent granite.
In first era of Earth life, single-cell organisms responded to various stimuli and moved. Multicellular organisms began. Animals and plants began.
Oceans reached current depths and extents, from water brought by comets and asteroids hitting Earth.
Ice covered world as oxygen concentration rose.
Columbia or Hudsonland supercontinent melded Laurentia, Baltica, Ukraine, Amazonia, and Australia.
Asteroid, comet, high volcanism, sea-level change, warming, or cooling caused mass extinction.
Era had volcanoes, glaciers, rain, erosion, and high sedimentation. Algae, fungi, and marine protozoa began.
Amoebas sensed chemicals, temperature, touch, and radiation. Amoebas responded to stimulation by withdrawing or extending pseudopods. They detected stimulus magnitude, summed stimuli over time, and adapted to stimuli.
Euglena had eyespot, which detected light, sent signal along membrane, and thereby caused flagellum to move.
Era ended with second great catastrophe or revolution, of unknown cause.
All continents, Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America, were together near equator.
Four times ice covered Earth for 10 million years, with average temperature of -50 C. Earth interior heat kept sea bottom unfrozen. In each cycle, volcano carbon dioxide increased 1000 times and heated Earth by absorbing sunlight. Land reflected less light from fewer glaciers. Increased moisture trapped more heat. Earth warmed 100 degrees in 1000 years. Average temperature was 50 C, with heavy rains and erosion. Rain took carbon dioxide from air and eroded more, so Earth cooled, making more ice, which cooled it more, so Earth became icy again in 1000 years.
At current-eon beginning, Asia and Africa collided and all continents came together, to form mountains.
Ice covered world.
All phyla had begun, but animals had only soft bodies. Vertebrates had not yet started.
Land plants began -600000000. By end, there were insects and reptiles. Era ended with Appalachian Revolution.
The four continents were Gondwana in south and North America (Laurentia), Siberia, and north Europe (Baltica) in north.
Asteroid, comet, high volcanism, sea-level change, warming, or cooling caused mass extinction.
Life proliferated.
Animals and plants filled oceans. Crust folding built mountains. Sea level rose and fell. At end, continental shelf invertebrates increased rapidly, with trilobites dominant. Burgess Shale in British Columbia, Chengjiang in China, and Sirius Passet in Greenland from this period have many fossils.
Continents drifted and rotated 90 degrees, causing ten cold and hot cycles, with mass extinctions.
Life proliferated.
Life proliferated.
Vertebrates began as jawless fish appeared. Mountain building was by crust folding. Sea level rose and fell. Plants were on land.
North America {Laurentia} lay lengthwise along equator. Siberia lay to east, rotated 180 degrees. Australia, India, Africa, South America, and Antarctica lay to east, forming a continent {Gondwana}, with North Africa at South Pole and Australia north of equator. North Europe {Baltica} lay south between Laurentia and Siberia.
60% of marine genera became extinct, possibly as sea level changed widely.
Formerly separated by Iapetus Sea, Laurentia and Baltica collided, making Caledonides Mountains. Caledonides Mountains are now in Appalachia, Scotland, and Norway. Hercynian Sea spread over central Europe.
Mountain building was by crust folding. Sea level rose and fell. Insects began. Bony fish began.
Great climate changes made trilobites extinct. Lobefin fish began, and later amphibians began. Pine forests began.
European mountains formed in northwest Europe when Europe and North America collided, while Gondwana and Asia were still separate.
55% of marine genera became extinct in Late Devonian {Frasnian-Famennian event}, perhaps by global coolness, low sea oxygen, or meteor or comet impact.
Forests were at maximum. Amphibians were dominant. Reptiles began. Crust down-folded. Appalachian Mountains formed in east USA. Cordilleran Mountains formed in Spain, north Africa, Greece, Turkey, India, and Burma.
Life proliferated.
Appalachians formed in east USA when Gondwana collided with Europe and North America.
Cordilleran Mountains formed in Spain, north Africa, Greece, Turkey, India, and Burma.
Permian had glaciation and was cold. Continental shelf invertebrates began to decrease. Mammal-like reptiles began.
Gondwana glaciation was greatest.
Perhaps triggered by asteroid or comet, volcanoes {Siberian Traps} near Tunguska Basin in Siberia caused Permian-Triassic catastrophe. Sea level and climate changed. 84% of marine genera and 95% of marine species died out. 70% of land species became extinct. Perhaps, mountain-sized meteor landed northwest of Australia at Bedout crater, making quartz fractures in multiple directions and making glasses inside crystals. Volcanoes fracture quartz in one direction.
Erosion was dominant. Continental shelf invertebrates began to increase. Therapsids began.
Era was possibly -248000000 to -65000000. Dinosaurs were on land and sea. First dinosaur fossil was in 1824 and first called "dinosaur" in 1842. First birds began. Mammals began. Flat spiral-shelled, octopus-like ammonites were in sea. Gymnosperms rose and fell. First monocotyledon plants appeared. Era ended with Rocky Mountain Revolution.
A large landmass {Pangaea} had center at 0 degrees longitude and 0 degrees latitude, with few species and only shallow waters. It caused great climate changes. Asia with Gondwana joined other three continents and caused Ural Mountains. Africa collided with North America and caused Appalachian Mountains. South America and Yucatan collided with North America and caused Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma.
High volcanism and widespread warming eliminated 52% of marine genera.
Gondwana separated from Pangaea, making Tethys Sea.
Mammals began. Dinosaurs were dominant.
Sierra Nevada Mountains formed in west USA, and west North America submerged.
Island separated from Africa.
Numbers of continental-shelf invertebrates remain constant from now on. Flowering plants began. Alps and Rocky Mountains formed. Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea formed. Surface temperature began to decrease, with great climate changes.
Alps formed in west-central Europe.
Rocky Mountains formed in west USA.
Island separated from India.
Alps, Himalayas, and East African mountains grew. Ocean currents changed. Polar ice caps formed. Monsoons started in Asia. East Africa became dry. Europe became temperate. Forests became grasslands and woodlands [-66000000].
After passing over Bermuda hotspot and rising, followed by erosion, land subsided {Mississippi Embayment}, and ocean flowed into gap between Appalachian Mountains and Ouachita Mountains of Arkansas and Oklahoma.
Forests rose and fell. Climate was mostly warm. Mammals became bigger.
All continents reached current positions.
50-kilometer-wide 10-kilometer-deep asteroid hit Earth at 180-kilometer-wide Chicxulub crater off Yucatan Peninsula in Gulf of Mexico, leading to high volcanism and fires across Earth middle. Up to 75% of marine genera died. 75% of animal and plant species ended. 18% of land vertebrates, mostly dinosaurs, became extinct. 240-kilometer-wide circular fault surrounds crater. Chlorine and bromine removed ozone layer. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and methane increased. Toxic minerals entered oceans. Ferns were first to recover, followed by flowering plants that pollinate by wind.
Did dinosaurs die by alkaloids in the new flowering plants? Did dinosaurs die from repeated eruptions in the Deccan Traps in India?
Climate was warm and forested. Prosimians were abundant.
Forests flourished but then retracted. Climate was mostly warm. Mammals evolved.
North-America coastal plains submerged. Climate was warm and forested. Modern mammals began.
Decaying organic matter formed methane on continental shelves. Water molecules formed lattices around methane molecules, hydrating methane {methane ice}. Sediment forced hydrated methane hundreds of meters below ocean floor. At equator, ocean surface warmed, water evaporated, and top layer became denser and saltier. Perhaps, ocean surface warmed from increased volcanic activity. Dense water sank to bottom and melted methane-hydrate ice near coastlines. Methane gas rose to surface {methane explosion}. Rising methane gas took oxygen gas from water, leaving dead zones. Many foraminifers became extinct, many land species perished, and modern mammals took hold. Methane in atmosphere warmed Earth more, by trapping heat, so methane release continued. More ocean evaporation left land bridges between north continents. Melting methane also destabilized ocean floor, causing landslides, tsunamis, and more methane release.
Today, people can use methane deposits for energy.
Atmosphere carbon-dioxide levels doubled or tripled, causing temperatures to rise 10 C for 50,000 to 100,000 years.
First grasslands {grasslands} formed, replacing forests as Earth cooled and dried.
Volcanoes increased.
Antarctic ice cap formed as climate cooled. Grasslands formed in warmer regions, replacing forests.
Epoch had many volcanoes and cool climate.
Australia separated from South America and Antarctica landmass.
Drought caused African forest to become savanna. African fauna became like today.
Continents had ice sheets.
Glacial cycles started.
Ocean current changes led to glaciation, and land bridge formed between South America and Latin America.
Tuff erupted and spread 1000 cubic kilometers of ash.
Magnetic poles reversed.
Sea level dropped, and land connected Africa and Asia. Lesser apes, elephants, rodents, pigs, and antelopes migrated to Europe and Asia.
Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ) extends from White Island to Ruapehu and includes active cone volcanoes Ruapehu, Tongariro/Ngauruhoe, and White Island and twin calderas Okataina and Taupo.
Tuff erupted and spread 1000 cubic kilometers of ash.
More intense glaciation started. Aridity increased. Grasslands spread more.
Epoch had ice ages.
Era had ice ages.
Bishop tuff erupted and spread 750 cubic-kilometers of ash.
Lava Creek tuff erupted and spread 1000 cubic kilometers of ash.
Gunz was first ice age.
Ice Ages in Europe formed Middle-East and Mediterranean fluvials, with more water and more fertility. Axis-tilt variation, orbit-eccentricity variation, Earth-axis precession, continental-plate movements, and mountain growth caused glaciation. Variations change ocean-current and air-current circulation and cool poles. Ice Ages ended as Wurm glacial period ended.
.
Mindel was second ice age. Glaciers were at greatest extent in -450,000.
.
Riss was third ice age.
Eemian was third and last major interglacial period.
Wurm was fourth ice age. Ice was at maximum extent in -55,000.
Mount Toba on Sumatra exploded and ejected 2800 cubic kilometers of ash.
Small Ice Age reached greatest extent.
During an ice age, Bering land bridge existed for last time, allowing further human migration.
Rainfall decreased.
A small ice age began, perhaps after a comet hit North America.
A cold period began 8200 years ago.
Mount Etna erupted, causing an avalanche, undersea mudslide, and tsunami.
Mt. Mazama erupted and spread 50 cubic-kilometers of ash.
Desert started to become dry [-3000]. It became dry [-1000].
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It followed Medieval Climate Optimum or Medieval Warm Period. High rainfall caused Great Famine in Europe [1315 to 1317]. Glaciers began to increase [1550]. Some years [1650] [1770] [1850] had very low temperatures.
A 5-meter-diameter asteroid or comet exploded 5 kilometers above Tunguska region of central Siberian forest, flattening 80-mile diameter circle.
Norse navigator colonized Greenland.
He was from Iceland, was navigator and explorer, and discovered northeast America and called it Vinland. Afterward, other Icelanders visited Baffin, Labrador, and Newfoundland in Canada, up to 1350. He was son of Eric the Red, who had reached Greenland. From Viking settlement in Godthafjord, he landed in Newfoundland.
Marco Polo lived 1251 to 1324. Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, two brothers from Venice, went to China [1271 to 1274] with Niccolo's son Marco, through Palestine, Persia, central Asia, and across Gobi desert in Mongolia. He visited Kublai Khan at Cambuluc [1275]. The Polos returned to Venice [1295].
He lived 1450 to 1500, was from Portugal, explored west coast of Africa, was first to round Cape of Good Hope, and found way to India.
He lived 1451 to 1506 and used money from Queen Isabella I and King Ferdinand V of Spain. He rode the Santa Maria, accompanied by the smaller Nina and Pinta, on the first of four voyages to West Indies [1492]. He explored Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and Columbia [1502 and 1504].
He lived 1450 to 1499 and discovered coast of Canada.
He lived 1469 to 1524. From Portugal, he went to Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, and sailed to India. He opened east Africa and India to trade, by force. He captured the gold-trading port of Kilwa in Zimbabwe [1498].
He lived 1454 to 1512, was from Florence, and devised system to find longitude closely. He found South America [1499] for Spain. He voyaged to Americas [1501 to 1504]. He sailed to Plate River in South America [1502]. On returning, he had maps made. German mapmaker Martin Waldseemuller called New World "America" [1507].
He lived 1467 to 1520 and took Brazil.
He lived 1475 to 1519. From Spain, he was first European to see Pacific Ocean at Panama (Darien).
He lived 1460 to 1521 and discovered Florida, and later tried to colonize Florida. He also governed Puerto Rico.
He lived 1480 to 1521. His ships circumnavigated world and showed Asia and America relation to Europe. Magellan discovered Philippines [1521] and claimed them for Spain. Juan Sebastian Del Cano returned home, but Magellan was slain.
He lived 1485 to 1547. Coming to Mexico for Spain, people thought he was descendant of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. He renounced his allegiance to Spain and defeated Spanish army. He turned to defeated Aztecs, but he lost his powers.
He lived 1475 to 1541 and conquered Peru starting at Cajamarca and marching to Cuzco [1533]. He ruled until assassinated.
He lived 1491 to 1557. From France, he explored and then settled in Canada.
He lived 1494 to 1560, was Dominican, explored Georgia, and started Sea Island Missions.
He lived 1502 to 1572 and conquered Philippines.
He lived 1541 to 1595. From Spain, he left Callao in Peru, crossed Pacific Ocean, and came back [1567 to 1569]. From Spain, he found Marquesas Islands [1595].
He lived 1535 to 1594. From England, he tried to find Northwest Passage to China and reached Canadian coast.
He lived 1550 to 1597 and explored northeast coast of America, looking for Northwest Passage.
He lived 1565 to 1611 and discovered New York [1607], which was part of Iroquois Confederacy of Native Americans. He claimed Hudson River area for Holland [1611]. He claimed Connecticut for England [1614].
He lived 1567 to 1635 and founded Quebec, Canada, on St. Lawrence River.
He lived 1620 to 1698 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.
He lived 1645 to 1700 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.
He lived 1623 to 1708 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.
He lived 1637 to 1675 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.
He lived 1603 to 1659 and discovered Tasmania and New Zealand.
He lived 1643 to 1687 and explored Canada and interior of North America, claimed Mississippi River valley for France, and built forts for trade.
He lived 1685 to 1749 and explored and traded in Canada and west North America.
He lived 1729 to 1811 and explored south Pacific Ocean as he went around world.
He lived 1728 to 1779. While circumnavigating Earth, he discovered Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) [1768] and later claimed east coast of Australia for Britain [1770]. Original inhabitants were Aborigines.
Clark lived 1770 to 1838. Lewis lived 1774 to 1809. They organized Lewis and Clark Expedition, started at St. Louis, went up Missouri River, crossed Rocky Mountains, and traveled to Columbia River mouth. Sacajawea of Lemhi Shoshone accompanied them.
He lived 1771 to 1806 and reached upper Niger River.
Russian ship discovered Antarctica.
He lived 1812 to 1885. From England, he went to Tasmania, Gulf of Carpentaria, Adelaide, and Port Darwin.
He lived 1813 to 1873 and explored south Africa [1841], crossed Kalahari Desert, explored Zambesi River, reached Luanda on Atlantic [1854], searched for source of Nile [1866], got to Lake Tanganyika, saw Victoria Falls, and went down upper Congo. USA journalist Henry Stanley found him [1871] and said, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume." He died in Africa.
He lived 1800 to 1862.
He lived 1841 to 1904 and found Dr. Livingstone. Later, he helped Belgium rule Congo and Britain rule other African lands.
He lived 1872 to 1928 and sailed Northwest Passage [1906]. He lost race to North Pole [1909]. He found South Pole [1911]. He flew over North Pole [1926].
He lived 1856 to 1920 and discovered North Pole and north Greenland.
He lived 1888 to 1957 and explored North Pole.
Apollo spacecraft orbited Moon.
He lived 1930 to ? and was first person to step on Moon.
In early Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus had symmetrical, teardrop-shaped, heavy stone hand axe flaked on both sides {bifacial blade}, used for cutting, whittling, scraping, shredding, and butchering bone, antler, meat, hide, wood, and plants.
In Lower Paleolithic, Homo erectus developed new technique {cylinder-hammer technique} for making stone tools. Wood branches, bones, or weathered stones can make soft hammers to spread percussion to give wide arcs to cones, to make less-jagged edges. This technique did not make original edge but finished the blade.
Homo heidelbergensis invented tools chipped from shaped stone cores {prepared core technique} {tortoise core technique}. Toolmakers hit large stones with sharp blows to crack off finished tools.
Flint chisels {burin} were for wood or antler/bone carving.
Musical instruments {drum} can have skin stretched over gourd or hollow wood. Before, people used wood blocks.
Hollow bones {flute, music} had drilled holes at right places.
People wove reeds and leaves {basket weaving}.
Before domestication, people had pets. Perhaps, bird domestication {animal domestication} began by imprinting. Perhaps, cow domestication began by imprinting. Perhaps, domestication began by propinquity at water holes. Perhaps, domestication began for warmth, in North Africa only. Perhaps, domestication began by taking in scavenger pups. Perhaps, domestication began by taming certain nomadic animals, such as reindeer, goats, and sheep using salt from urine to attract them.
Dogs were first domesticated animals. People ate domesticated reindeer, sheep, goats, and fowl. People ate cows, pigs, and oxen by late Neolithic. Later, people used horse, ass, and onager for riding, pulling loads, and carrying loads. Totem animals typically are not domesticated animals.
Fiber sewing began {cloth weaving}, with no looms.
Burials with barrow or cairn for one person or flat-topped mound {howe} for more than one person began, with coffins, cremation, and house of the dead. Ships associate with burial and dead.
Stone graves {grave} with passageways, for up to 100 people, were above ground. After first burial was a second bone burial. Later tombs, for 20 to 60 people, were below ground.
White tin and gray tin have low melting points {tin smelting}.
Phoenicians built copper mines {copper mining}, with sixty-foot long shafts underground.
Two flat-sided stones {grindstone} show characteristic marks.
African Middle Stone Age used colored minerals {pigment}.
Flint or chert was struck to make sliver {stone point}.
fresh and salt water clams {shellfish gathering}.
Home erectus traders carried native products to far places {trading}.
People used fish hooks and line.
Toolmaker struck flint or chert to make sliver and then worked side {barb point}.
Pebbles {bead} can have a drilled hole.
3-centimeter chipped flint or chert stone tool {microlith}.
First Homo sapiens used tools {bone tool}.
Egg shells and beads were strung {jewelry}.
Stone tools {stone tool} had standard shapes.
Throwing sticks {spear} began, and spear throwers began later [-15000].
Baboon fibula has 29 notches {counting device}.
Small tools had quartz decorations.
Apollo-cave rock paintings show rituals. Wonderwerk Cave [-8000] is in north Cape Province, South Africa.
Red clay can dry in sun {terracotta}.
Tassili-n-Ajjer in Algeria and Fezzan in Libya have petroglyphs {rock painting}. Neolithic paintings are in Morocco.
People used fish hooks and line.
People hand-made vessels {pottery} from river clay, with no wheel.
People wove reeds and fibers but used no looms.
Donkey is cross between horse and mule.
Bird domestication {guinea hen, domestication} began.
As desert dried, Middle Niger floodplain became good for plants {rice, cultivation}. Jenne-jeno in Mali is there.
Grain domestication {sorghum, cultivation} began.
Metal workers hammered natural copper {copper, hammering}, with no ore smelting or metal melting.
Pottery used river clay but no wheel.
Pottery used river clay but no wheel.
Fixed cloths {sail} helped boats go up Nile River.
natural silver {silver, hammering} with no smelting.
Fibers can twist or braid {rope}.
Sahara had wet climate with wide grasslands for cattle {cattle}.
People extracted oil {palm oil} from palm trees in central west Africa.
Millet-like grain {teff} is native to Ethiopia and has small round gray grains.
Plants can have beans {coffee bean} and be native to Ethiopia. Trade began [1300 to 1400]. Yemen was major producer [1400 to 1600].
Plants {yam, cultivation} can be native to, and first farmed, in central west Africa.
Countries still have great copper deposits {copper, mining and smelting}.
Iron smelters {iron, smelting} were maguzawa or fire magicians. Iron was main factor in Dahomey, Benin, and Yoruba kingdoms, especially at Ife and Oyo.
Mauritania was in west Sahara {copper, smelting}.
Iron smelting came from Congo.
Early Archaic Dalton culture had burial places {cemetery}.
Corn {maize, corn} became more edible.
Kidney or pinto beans {bean, cultivation} farmed.
Rodents {guinea pig, domestication} can be native to South America.
Goat-like animals {llama, domestication} can be native to Andes.
Plants {manioc, cultivation} can be native to South America.
Plants {pumpkin, cultivation} can be native to Mexico.
Plants {squash, cultivation} can be native to Mexico.
Birds {turkey, domestication} can be native to Americas.
Native corn {corn, cultivation} grew in Valley of Tehuacán in south Puebla and north Oaxaca.
Plants {cotton, cultivation} can grow on coast.
Corn cultivation came from Mexico.
Genus Chenopodium {goosefoot} has herbs like wild spinach.
Plants {sunflower, cultivation} can be native to USA.
Plants {potato, cultivation} can be native to Peru.
Corn grew in Andes.
Lima beans farmed.
Towns, temples, and tombs used baked clay {fired clay} bricks.
Corn became easily edible.
Plants {quinoa} can be native to Peru and have edible seeds.
Squash came from Mexico.
In south Mexico, Tehuacán Valley, 1200 kilometers of canals were dug that became coated with travertine from calcite-soaked water and today look like stone snakes {tecoatl}. Small terraces layered sloped ground. It rains only six months and is dry six months. Purrón Dam was near Puebla [-750 to 1150].
Zapotec culture was in south Mexico {glyph writing}.
Totem carving began {woodworking tool}.
Navajo pueblos were round, dome-like wood frames {hogan}| covered by clay.
Hopi pueblo {kiva} built.
Pueblo culture ground corn on flat stones {metates}.
tanned leather pouch {parfleche}.
lard beaten with berries.
Bison leather covered conical wood frames {teepee} {tipi}|.
Dwellings {pueblo}| had interconnecting mud-brick rooms in layers.
He lived 1706 to 1790 and helped found University of Pennsylvania [1751]. He found that lightning is electric, using kite and key [1752].
German gunsmiths invented it. Rifles {Kentucky rifle} can have barrels longer than one meter.
He lived 1765 to 1825 {cotton gin}. Honoré Blanc used interchangeable parts for muskets in France [1785].
He lived 1765 to 1815 {steamboat}.
South America shipped nitrate fertilizer {fertilizer} to Europe.
Overland Stage Company used western version [1862] {Concord coach}.
single-bit felling ax {American ax}.
Latex {gutta-percha} can be polyterpene or isoprene polymer. Caoutchouc is elastic, and gutta-percha is not elastic.
Wagons {trotting wagon} can be two-wheeled bench seats, for pleasure driving.
He lived 1809 to 1884.
He lived 1791 to 1919.
He lived 1804 to 1886 {steel plow}.
He lived 1800 to 1860 {rubber vulcanization}. He did not found or run Goodyear Rubber Company. Mesoamericans vulcanized rubber [-1600].
He lived 1819 to 1867 {lock stitch sewing machine}.
He lived 1811 to 1861 {railway safety brake}.
He lived 1817 to 1888 {steam valve gear}.
He lived 1810 to 1880 {clipper ship}.
He lived 1804 to 1886 {steam plow}.
Oil {petroleum} was near surface in Pennsylvania.
He lived 1819 to 1890.
He lived 1847 to 1931, found Edison effect [1883], and invented light bulb {light bulb}, movies, phonograph, and electric generator {electric dynamo}. He projected kinetoscopes onto screens and showed vaudeville acts [1896].
He lived 1837 to 1920 {celluloid plastic}.
He lived 1847 to 1922.
Time zones {time zone} became international [1884].
He lived 1858 to 1916.
He lived 1865 to 1923.
Thermite welding {welding, thermite} uses acetylene. Oxyfuel welding began at same time.
He lived 1856 to 1915 {Taylor-White process}.
Wilbur lived 1867 to 1912 {controlled powered airplane flight}. Orville lived 1871 to 1948.
He lived 1863 to 1947, built automobiles, opposed unions, and started Ford Foundation.
He lived 1860 to 1930 and invented gyroscopic compass.
Farm vehicles {tractor} developed from automobiles.
He lived 1882 to 1945 {liquid fuel rocket}.
He lived 1896 to 1980.
He lived 1900 to 1973.
Atanasoff lived 1904 to 1995. Mauchly lived 1907 to 1980. Eckert lived 1919 to 1995.
He lived 1903 to 1957. He showed that entanglement and non-locality do not send information faster than light speed [1932].
He lived 1913 to ?.
He lived 1920 to 1990. Jay Forrester also developed magnetic core memory [1951].
Eckert lived 1919 to 1995 {magnetic tape computer}. Mauchly lived 1907 to 1980.
Bardeen lived 1908 to 1991. Brattain lived 1902 to 1987. Shockley lived 1910 to 1989.
He lived 1930 to 2002.
He lived 1924 to ? and used masking {photomask} to add and etch layers for silicon wafers {planar technology}.
Satellite detected Van Allen radiation belts.
Kilby lived 1923 to 2005. Noyce lived 1927 to 1990.
Transistors {transistor, computer} replaced vacuum tubes.
Satellite had solar cells.
Satellites {communications satellite} can allow picture transmission around world.
Davies lived 1924 to 2000.
Feigenbaum lived 1936 to ?.
Algorithm instruction and data-input stream can be simultaneous. SISD is Single Instruction stream, Single Data stream. SIMD is Single Instruction, Multiple Data. MIMD is Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data. SPMD is Single Program, Multiple Data.
input and output devices {computer data communications system}.
He lived 1923 to 2003.
transistors on boards {very large-scale integrated circuit} (VLSI).
Spacecraft {space shuttle} can fly to orbit and return, with three people.
He invented method to synthesize DNA {solid phase phosphoramidite chemistry}, using DNA on polystyrene beads exposed to acid. Overlapping matching-end oligos can allow longer sequences. Process can make oligos up to 100 bases.
Engravings {rock engraving} are in Olary region, south Australia.
Axes {waisted ax} can look like heavy hoes.
Stone axes {stone ax grinding} were ground flat in north Australia.
People burned dead bodies and kept ashes.
Rock painting is in Kimberley in northwest Australia.
Potters hand-formed and baked pottery.
Agriculture {millet, cultivation} began in southeast Asia.
Agriculture began in southeast Asia.
Animals {dog, domestication} had domestication, but no breeding.
Potters hand-formed and baked pottery {pottery of fired clay}.
Dried clay {mud-brick} buildings were in west Asia.
Animals {pig, domestication} can be native to China.
Silkworms make silk.
Plants {banana, cultivation} can be native to New Guinea.
Plants {eggplant, cultivation} can be native to India.
Cattle {humped cattle} can be native to India.
Southeast Asia had pottery and pottery decoration.
Plants {sesame, cultivation} can be native to India.
Plants {sugar cane, cultivation} can be native to New Guinea.
Animals {cow, domestication} can be native to India.
Millet came from southeast Asia.
Yellow River settlements imported jade from Siberia {jade trading}.
Rice came from southeast Asia.
Smelting separated copper from ore.
Buffalo {water buffalo, domestication} can be native to Southeast Asia.
Perhaps, plow came from India.
Pig came from China.
Silk threads became cloth {silk cloth}.
Animals {camel, domestication} can be native to Afghanistan.
Animals {elephant domestication} can be native to India.
Hard stones {stone tool with ground edge} like flint and chert can scratch softer stones.
Husband's funeral pyre also burned widow {sutlee}.
Copper and tin smelting to make bronze began.
Wooden plows {iron plow share} had an iron share and cutter.
Pictorial writing began.
Cities {fortified city} had walls and towers.
Spices {spice} are native to India.
Iron mixed with carbon at high heat can make steel. Steel is stronger and rusts less than iron.
Cast-iron sickles began {iron casting}.
Mold from soybean curds covered boils.
Cotton is native to India.
Rear had hinged wood board {rudder, invented}.
Leather apparatus {breast harness} was over horse head.
Hinged points can be for measuring.
A magnetized needle {magnetic compass} can balance on a point.
Horizontal bows {crossbow} can have locking mechanisms.
Ceramics had baked glossy colors {glaze, ceramic}.
Maps {map with grid} showed longitude and latitude.
Chrysanthemums repel insects.
He lived 50 to 121.
He lived 78 to 139.
Footrests {stirrup} hang from saddle and can direct and speed horse.
Decimal system added null digit symbol {zero symbol}.
ten-digit positional notation {decimal system}.
Sui dynasty built it.
China printed money {paper money}.
kaolin baked at high temperature {porcelain}.
Carved wood block had applied ink {printing}.
Guns used powder.
Kaifeng was capital {mechanical clock}.
Court played card game.
Encyclopedia had 20,000 chapters.
bristle brush {toothbrush}.
Wheat precursors {wild grain} grew like grass.
Potters hand-formed and sun-dried pottery.
Wheat precursors grew like grass {wild grain gathering}.
Natural copper {copper bead} needed no smelting.
Phoenicians traveled Mediterranean Sea {sea trading}.
Barley is native to Near East.
Dog domestication did not include breeding.
Olive is native to Middle East.
Plants {pea, cultivation} can be native to Middle East.
Agriculture began in Fertile Crescent from Nile River mouth to Caspian Sea. Wild barley, emmer wheat, and grasses grew on lightly wooded hills.
Animals {goat, herding} can be native to Iraq.
Animals {sheep, herding} can be native to Iraq.
male and female gods {fertility cult}.
People gathered, threshed, and hand ground precursors to wheat {grain grinding}.
People stored precursors to wheat and kept them dry {grain storage}.
Natufian culture baked unleavened bread {bread}.
Plants {chickpea} can be native to Turkey.
Natural copper needs no smelting {copper, use}.
Honey fermented naturally.
Pig is native to Mesopotamia.
Plants {flax, cultivation} grew near Red Sea and Black Sea.
Copper hammering spread to Cyprus and Aegean Sea.
Planting and cultivating went from Near East to Nile Valley and west Europe. Wheat, barley, pea, and lentil farms {farming, beginning} were in cleared areas.
wood planks with sealant {boat}.
Animals {cat domestication} had domestication, but no breeding.
Sedges {chufa} can have small edible tubers and be native to Egypt.
Cows are native to Mesopotamia.
River water ran in channels to fields.
Plants {sycamore fig} can be native to Egypt.
Barley came from Middle East.
Melting copper ore extracts copper, and melting and cooling copper strengthens it {copper, annealing}.
Plants {wheat, development} developed from wheat precursors.
Hammered gold can make jewelry {gold jewelry} or money.
Egyptian solar calendar {calendar, Egypt} had 12 months of thirty days, with five extra days. 10-day periods had constellations {decan}. 12 decans were in the sky at Nile-River annual flooding, marking 12 hours {temporal hour}.
Poppies are native to Sumer {opium production}.
Plants {fig cultivation} can be native to Middle East.
Curved bows {reflex bow} began.
Pointer shadow shows time of day.
Towns {walled town} became fortified with walls.
People folded documents and sealed them with wax {wax seal}.
Meteorite smelting can make alloy {nickel-iron}.
Botai domesticated and rode horses {horse domestication}.
Black-Sea area had potter's wheels {wheel}, solid three-plank wood wheels, and axles.
Picture writing began.
Bronze has copper and tin.
People can make drinks {alcohol, invented} from fermented barley.
Plants {apple, cultivation} can be native to Sumer.
Rounded parts {arch} can curve from column to keystone.
Animals {ass, domestication} can carry loads.
Alcohol can come from fermented barley.
Reeds soaked in tallow {rushlight} can burn at tip. Later, Romans used wicks rolled in tallow and possibly beeswax {candle} [-3000].
Plants {date, cultivation} can be native to Sumer.
Plants {flax, Sumer} can be native to Sumer.
Plants {grape, cultivation} can be native to Sumer.
Millet is native to Sumer.
Asia had draft-animal domestication {onager}, but Americas had no such domestication.
Asia had draft-animal domestication {ox domestication}, but Americas had no such domestication.
Paper {papyrus}| can use stripped and crossed reeds and have sheets pasted at edges to make scrolls.
Crook plow developed from hoe. Spade plow developed from digging stick. Men plowed, but women used hoe or digging stick. Early sub-Saharan Africa and New World had no plows. Plows improve soil fertility by bringing up buried nutrients, and they control weeds. People, oxen, horses, or cattle can pull plows. Animals produce manure to make ground more fertile.
Wooden plows, pulled through ground, broke soil surface, so seeds went underground.
Plants {plum, cultivation} can be native to Sumer.
Sesame is native to Sumer.
Wheat came from Egypt.
People used natural glass pieces, with no sand melting.
Groups built houses {stone temple} of worship to local gods.
Bronze has copper and tin.
Iron smelting began.
two vertical supports and horizontal beam {post-and-lintel}.
Square sails {square-rigged sail} turned on mast.
Wine can come from fermented fruit.
Life after death needed a body, so embalming began {mummification}.
Bronze and brass {metal alloy} began.
Metal heating and cooling {metal annealing} strengthens it.
Melted iron hardened in sand molds {metal casting}.
Melted metals can stick together {metal joining}.
Heating metal ore {smelting metal} can extract metal.
Pounding metal {work hardening} can make it stronger.
Heating surface asphalt can remove petroleum.
Pictograms pressed into clay with reed showed human processions, heroes fighting two beasts, and war.
Precious metal was in coins {silver ingots for money}.
two wheels and horses pull it.
Strong metal {iron from ore} came from Egypt.
Beer can come from fermented barley.
Alloys {brass} can have copper and zinc.
Metal coins had images.
Melted sand cooled to glass {glass bowl}.
People and animals turned wheels to move water.
Traders went all over Middle East {merchant travel}.
Cinnabar can separate into mercury {mercury} and sulfur by heating.
Pewter is tin with some lead.
Tin and lead {solder} melts easily and can join metal pieces.
Twisted plant fibers {spinning} can make string.
Cinnabar can separate into mercury and sulfur by heating.
Aqueduct carried water to palace.
Aqueducts {shadoof} were for irrigation.
Letters {alphabet, Phoenicia} can be sounds, with no pictures.
A waterway {canal} went from Nile River to Arabian Gulf.
Large boats {ship} began.
Camel is native to Arabia.
Linear measurements {linear measurement} began.
Assyria used base-60 number system and positional notation. Arithmetic included multiplication and division. Fractions and ratios included common denominator. They found squares, cubes, and square roots.
Iron mixed with carbon at high heat can make steel. Steel is stronger and rusts less than iron.
Ships {ships with sealed decks} had wood planks with sealant.
Water or alcohol can extract plant pigments {dye from plant}.
Oil with pigment {enamel, oil} can bake on surfaces.
Melted glass can have pigment {glass tinting}.
Gold can mix with other metals {gold fusion}.
Squeezing or heating plants can extract oil {oil extraction from plant}.
They knew Sun, moon, and planet paths and predicted lunar eclipses.
Babylonians studied triangle geometry and gave circle 360 degrees {triangle and circle geometry}.
Babylonians calculated mathematics tables {mathematics tables} for arithmetic.
Babylonia divided day into time units {sixty-minute hour}.
Assyrians used mathematical astronomy to measure azimuth.
Lunar calendar {calendar, Assyria} had 12 months.
Iron tools {iron tools} began.
Metal discs {coin} had images.
Domesticated cows, sheep, and goats make milk that can ferment {cheese}.
Wine can come from fermented grapes.
Monks smuggled silkworms to Constantinople from China {silkworm smuggling}.
Byzantine army used flammable liquid {Greek fire}, first in battle of Cyzicus [673] during reign of Constantine Pogonatus [648 to 685].
Pressed roses form perfume {perfume}.
Soap is animal fat mixed with lye.
Processing plants can extract sugar with water {sugar refining}.
In first half of Abbevillian or Chellean culture, new stone-tool-making technique {hammerstone technique} developed. Percussion with hammer at edge back pops out semi-cones, leaving jagged edges and concave intersecting surfaces. Top was round and held in power grip.
In second half of Chellean culture, new stone-tool-making technique {anvil technique} developed. Toolmaker hit stone against large anvil stone to make bigger tools than before.
In Middle Paleolithic, Homo sapiens added tool handles {hafting}|.
Burials began, perhaps from belief in life after death.
Houses {permanent house} used baked clay.
Thrown curved sticks {boomerang} can return.
Huts {hut with mammoth-bone roof} with mammoth bone roofs were especially in west Russia.
Obsidian was in caves.
They gathered shellfish with nets.
Plants {oats, cultivation} can be native to Europe.
Plants {poppy, cultivation} can be native to Europe.
Neolithic people used ground and polished stone tools, rather than chipped or flaked, such as ax heads {celt}.
Neolithic father went to bed at time of childbirth {couvade}.
Neolithic widows sometimes married brother of dead husband {levirate}.
Farms began in south France.
burial mounds {kurg} {tumulus}.
A 75-meter circle had circular mound, ditch, and two wooden fences. Fence gates pointed toward sunrise and sunset at winter solstice. It also had a north gate.
Vinca culture was in Copper Age, which came from Middle East.
Collective graves were long chambers covered with earth to form mounds {barrow}|. Round barrows were for chief, ancestor worship, magic, and offerings for afterlife. First English towns began.
Community burials were in northwest France.
Farms {town} began in south England.
Stone graves {dolmen}| for one or several persons were above ground, with no entrance. Stone chests were for small graves.
Community burial tombs {passage grave} used large stones: Newgrange in Ireland [-3200], Maes Howe in Orkney, Scotland [-3300 to -3000], Jordhoj in Denmark [-3350], Los Millares in Spain [-3300 to -3000], and Mane Karnaplaye in France [-3500 to -3300].
Plants {barley cultivation} came from Middle East.
Plants {wheat cultivation} came from Middle East.
Bronze came from Middle East.
Scribes pressed symbols into clay, on both sides, using 45 printing blocks, and then baked the clay.
Two opposing arcs depict sunrise and sunset positions from winter to summer solstice. It has crescent moon, full moon, and Pleiades.
Plants {olive, cultivation} can be native to Crete.
fossil tree resin {amber, discovered}.
Iron came from Middle East.
Strong metal {iron} came from Middle East.
People used salt for curing and flavor {salt mining}.
similar to Phoenician.
Aqueduct carried water to Athens.
Earth, wood, or stone can block river.
Different plant types can grow successively.
Concrete docks {harbor} began.
A 19-year astronomical calendar has bronze gears and a differential turntable.
Aqueduct carried water to Rome.
Public baths {bath} began.
Concrete is sand and pebbles in cement.
lever {crane, invented}.
Heating {central heating} used ducts.
Pipes led to houses with water and from houses to sewer system {plumbing}.
Pulleys {tackle, construction} aided construction.
Vertical wheels with slats can turn in rivers, and water-mill rotating force can grind grain or cut wood.
Crank can turn horizontal cylinder to wind cable or rope and lift something.
Melted sand becomes transparent or translucent.
Arches allowed tunnels {road tunnel}.
Timber castles {motte-and-bailey castle} had an earth mound with a wooden tower and walled enclosure.
Rotating crops {crop rotation} allowed oxen to plough whole field, in northwest Europe.
Armored knights rode horses with saddles and foot holders {stirrups}.
Vertical wheels {water mill} with slats turn in rivers, and rotating force can grind grain or cut wood.
Wheeled plows {wheeled plow}, pulled by oxen, dug in north-plains sticky and heavy soil.
Horses replaced oxen, as harnesses {harness} improved.
Horses replaced oxen because new devices {whipple-tree} harnessed horses.
Cotton fibers can be cut, bleached, and pressed dry {cotton paper}.
Flax fibers must be cut, bleached, and pressed dry {linen paper}.
cleaning and thickening cloth {fulling}.
Water mills {water wheel} ground corn, blew bellows for forges, cleaned and thickened cloth, moved hammers, and cut wood.
Windmills ground corn.
Explorers mapped coastlines {navigation chart}.
First escapement {verge and foliot escapement} and mechanical clock began.
Lens grinding {spectacles} began just before.
Clocks {astronomical clock} had ornamental figures.
He lived 1398 to 1468 and printed Mazarin Bible or Gutenberg Bible [1456], using transferable letters {movable type} on printing presses.
He lived 1480 to 1542 {spring-powered clock}.
Conical devices {fusee} can keep constant tension in clock springs.
Dasypodius lived 1532 to 1604.
Carbon particles {graphite} can be fine and smooth.
Writing utensils {pencil, graphite} had graphite mixed with clay.
He lived 1550 to 1600 and invented pitman to convert rotary motion into back-and-forth motion.
He lived 1550 to 1610 {knitting machine}.
He lived 1647 to 1712 {steam pressure cooker}.
He lived 1650 to 1715.
If two waterways are at different heights, enclosed structures {canal lock} can fill or empty, to transfer boats.
Ships {ship design} became more seaworthy.
Crop rotation {Norfolk crop rotation} can plant different foods on different fields each year, to preserve soil.
He lived 1674 to 1741 {hoe with seed drill}.
He lived 1677 to 1717 {iron smelting with coke}. Previously, smelting used charcoal.
He lived 1663 to 1729.
He lived 1674 to 1751 {deadbeat escapement}.
He lived 1674 to 1738. Crop rotation rotated clover, wheat, turnips, and barley.
He lived 1704 to 1780 {flying shuttle}.
He lived 1693 to 1776 {marine chronometer}.
Sugar beets {sugar beet, sugar} were cheaper and replaced honey for sweetening.
He lived 1716 to 1772.
He lived 1726 to 1797 {rib knit knitting machine}.
He lived 1725 to 1795.
First animal-care school {veterinary school} began.
He lived 1720 to 1778. Spinning jenny spun four threads simultaneously, and spun 120 threads soon after.
He lived 1736 to 1819. Devices {governor, engine} can regulate steam-engine rotation velocity [1765]. Steam engines pumped water out of mines and increased coal production greatly.
He lived 1732 to 1792 and owned large cotton mills with spinning and weaving machines. Machines {water frame} spun pure cotton, with no added flax.
He lived 1753 to 1827. Machines {spinning mule} had a spinning-jenny moving carriage and water-frame rollers, to spin fine threads.
Furnaces {blast furnace} can smelt iron and make steel.
He lived 1750 to 1791 {iron bridge}.
He lived 1743 to 1823 {power loom}.
He lived 1751 to 1832.
He lived 1740 to 1800. Processes {puddling} can convert brittle pig iron to wrought iron, which is more malleable for shaping {rolling}.
Joseph lived 1740 to 1810 {hot air balloon}. Jacques lived 1745 to 1799.
Share and cutter were cast iron {plowshare, cast iron}.
He lived 1728 to 1808 {iron boat}.
He lived 1771 to 1831 {lathe for metal}.
He lived 1764 to 1835 {iron plow}.
Looms {circular loom} can weave socks and shirts with no seams.
He lived 1771 to 1833 {high-pressure steam engine}.
He lived 1752 to 1834. Power looms {Jacquard loom} had punched cards to make cloth designs.
He lived 1765 to 1826 {steam locomotive}.
He lived 1768 to 1843 {percussion lock}.
Sealed metal can store food.
He lived 1766 to 1820 {bullet}. Pin-fire cartridges, with pins, began in France [1830 to 1840]. Center-fire cartridges [1860 to 1870] had pin in gun.
He lived 1776 to 1860 {percussion cap}.
He lived 1792 to 1871 {analytical engine}.
He lived 1781 to 1848.
bed frame {bedstead}.
Melted sand becomes transparent or translucent {glass window}.
Animal or vegetable fat mixes with lye.
Underclothes {underwear} can be less bulky than clothes layers.
He lived 1768 to 1840 {coal stove}.
He lived 1818 to 1886 {balloon frame for house}.
He lived 1813 to 1897 {phonographic shorthand}.
He lived 1817 to ?. Knitting needles {latch needle} can open and close.
He lived 1813 to 1898 and invented cheaper steel manufacturing process {open-hearth process}.
He lived 1816 to 1892.
He lived 1813 to 1890 {nitrocellulose plastic}.
He lived 1801 to 1872. His trust provided for Nobel Prizes [1901].
He lived 1832 to 1891.
Refrigeration began just before {refrigerated ship}.
He lived 1834 to 1900 {motorcycle}.
He lived 1844 to 1929.
He lived 1856 to 1943 {magnetic coil}.
He lived 1858 to 1913.
Alfred Nobel financed scientific prizes for living people.
Treating sewage {sewage treatment} began.
He lived 1888 to 1946.
Rocket bombed London and Antwerp from Germany.
Satellite orbited Earth and then burned up. Sputnik means traveler.
Craft {spacecraft} orbited Earth.
Luna 2 crashlanded on Moon {Moon landing}.
Luna 3 recorded Moon far side {Moon orbit}.
He lived 1955 to ?.
The Bible tells that he started Judaism.
He lived -885 and -825, reformed constitution to create the harsh Spartan way, and founded military oligarchy with harsh laws.
The Bible says that he saw wheel in the air and was prophet.
He sailed along West African coast from Carthage. He founded settlement in Morocco [-550].
He lived -600 to -527. He seized power after unrest caused by nobles dissatisfied with Solon's laws [-561]. He ruled during prosperity and decreased upper-class power.
Hippias lived -551 to -490. Hipparchus lived -550 to -514. Sons of Pisistratus, first Hipparchus then Hippias, brought prosperity and decreased upper-class power. Revolt deposed Hippias [-510].
He lived -570 to -507. He became archon [-508], stabilized reforms of Solon, and added democratic reforms. He allowed more citizens to vote and reduced clan power. Ekklesia had power to decide major issues. Boule performed detailed government work. Major offices had elections. Lower offices rotated annually, chosen by lot. Officials were accountable for acts.
He was rival archon to Cleisthenes.
He lived -544 to -496.
Senate expelled him from Rome for offering to feed the people if Senate ended office of tribune [-491]. He joined Volscians and was about to sack Rome when his wife's tears stopped him. Volscians then killed him.
He lived -495 to -429, built Acropolis, fostered Delian League, and negotiated peace with Persia. Art, literature, and democracy flourished. Athens needed to import corn and exported wine, oil, and pottery. Plague and Peloponnesian War caused his downfall [-448]. Athens had 25% slaves.
He lived -519 to -430, was consul [-460], and was dictator [-458] [-439]. Senate appointed him dictator [-458]. He defeated enemy for Roman Republic and then went back to his farm.
He lived -432 to -367 and fought Italian cities and Carthage. He encouraged arts.
He lived ? to -395, led Heraclidae, and defeated Athens at Aegospotami [-405].
Damocles, at banquet in his honor, had sword suspended over his head by hair by order of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse.
He lived -340 to -273, was censor [-312 to -308], was consul [307] [296], and was dictator [-292] [-285]. He illegally remained in office as censor five years. With his power to fill vacancies in Senate, he appointed plebians to Senate. He also allowed plebians to be priests. He reapportioned tribes to give plebians control of Tribal Assembly. His clerk published the legis actiones law methods. He built Appian Way and main Roman aqueduct.
He lived -260 to -207, was son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca, founded city of New Carthage in Spain [-226], and governed Spain [-228 to -221], but later someone killed him.
He lived -247 to -182 and led Carthage army in Second Punic War. He ruled in Carthage after the peace.
He lived -275 to -203. As Roman Republic fought against Hannibal in Second Punic War, he did not commit to battle, and Rome replaced him before Rome's defeat at Cannae.
He lived -236 to -183. Roman Republic conquered Spain and defeated Hannibal of Carthage at Battle of Zama [-202]. He tried to prevent revenge on Hannibal, but Cato the Elder rigged trial against Scipio.
He lived -185 to -129. Roman Republic fought Third Punic War and sacked Carthage. He quelled rebellion in Spain. He tried to nullify the Gracchi's reforms.
Caius lived -154 to -121. Tiberius lived -163 to -133. The Gracchi of Roman Republic were sons of Cornelia. Tiberius Gracchus passed Sempronian law, which redistributed public lands to more people. Someone murdered him in riot over his renomination. Caius Gracchus then started social reforms and blocked Senate and consuls. Someone murdered him in riots protesting intent of Senate to repeal his measures. They redistributed land and had other land reforms. State began to feed the poor. State did not enforce army service until man was 17 years old. Equites and patricians were judges.
He lived -155 to -86 and tried more reform.
He lived -138 to -78. As ex-consul, he took Rome [-88], passed new laws (Leges Corneliae) to block reforms, and increased Senate to 600 members [-81].
He lived -106 to -48. Roman Republic conquered Spain. Senate and equite knights stopped revolt of Spartacus [-61]. Pompey cleared Mediterranean Sea of pirates, defeated Pontus, formed First Triumvirate [-60], and led Senate against Caesar, who defeated him at Pharsala during civil war. Senate passed agrarian laws that kept land from plebians.
He lived -100 to -44. Julius Caesar became consul [-59]. He conquered Gaul [-58 to -50]. He defied Senate's order to disband army and crossed Rubicon River [-49], starting civil war [-49 to -45]. He marched to Rome. He then defeated Pompey in Pharsala, Greece [-48]. He went to Greece and met Cleopatra. He went to Pontus and defeated Egypt, where he said "I came, I saw, I conquered." After he won the civil war, he became dictator of Rome, organized Roman Empire, ended anarchy, started social reforms, and began Julian calendar. Marcus Brutus assassinated him on March 15 {Ides of March} [-44], followed by more civil war.
He limited number of lawyers {jurisconsult} allowed to give opinions and gave them imperial authority. Only emperor set new laws. The people disliked his new laws {Julian law}. Men had to marry if younger than 60. Women had to marry if younger than 50. People that had children had reduced taxes and got jobs. Adultery was punishable. Weddings had to be modest. Extravagance was bad.
His great-nephew Octavian later became Caesar Augustus (Augustus Caesar).
He lived -106 to -43. Through alliance with Pompey, as consul he destroyed Catiline conspiracy against Roman Republic. Philosophy is about soul {cultura animi}.
He lived ? to -19, was praetor [-49], was consul [-46], and was Triumvirate member [-43 to -36].
He led Berber tribal revolt in Maghreb (Numidia) against Rome [17 to 24].
He lived -63 to 24.
He lived ? to 36 and was Roman Judea governor [26 to 36]. A Jewish sect {Zealot} wanted a nation. Jews in Syria and Palestine were against each other, their neighbors, and Rome. According to the Bible, he had Jesus arrested, condemned, and crucified [29].
He lived -2 to 65 and ruled Roman Empire while tutoring emperor Nero [54 to 62]. His father was Seneca the elder [-60 to 37].
He lived 251 to 356 and was Roman Catholic saint.
He lived 280 to 303 and was Catholic patron saint of England and of soldiers. By legend, he slew a dragon.
As Berber prince and general, he first helped Romans defeat his brother Firmus [375] but then rebelled against Roman emperor Honorius [386 to 398].
He lived ? to 524 or 528 and advocated class equality and sharing of all goods, including wives. His sect [494 to 524] was Gnostic.
He lived 830 to 879. Swedish Viking traders under Rurik built settlements at Novgorod and Kiev [860 to 879]. He attacked Byzantine Empire [860] in Rus'-Byzantine War. He started Rurik Dynasty that ruled Russia [862 to 1054].
He lived 850 to 913, followed Rurik, and united Viking Russian settlements by capturing Kiev [882].
He founded Fatimid dynasty in Tunisia [909]. He conquered from Morocco to edge of Egypt [914].
He invaded Egypt [969]. The Fatimid ruler al-Muiz built Cairo as Fatimid Empire capital.
He lived 950 to 1015, was Oleg's grandson, and became Grand Prince of Kiev [978 to 1015]. He chose Eastern Orthodox Church and Byzantine Christianity over Islam as official religion [989] and so is saint.
He lived 978 to 1054. As ruler of Kiev [1019 to 1054], he united Russian principalities.
She rode through Coventry naked to get her husband Leofric to lower taxes. "Peeping Tom" looked.
Robert Guiscard lived 1016 to 1085 and controlled Albania as Duke of Apulia and Calabria. Illyria and Epirus were in Albania mountain regions.
He lived 1043 to 1099. He served under Alfonso VI until 1081, when he sided with Muslims. Later, he captured Valencia from Muslims. Cid is same as Arabic "sayyid", "seid", or "lord". Campeador means "champion".
Batinis or Ismaili sect believed that Imam Jaffar's sons were the only true Imams. Imam Jaffar's first son was Ismail. Hassan's followers were the Assassins.
He lived 1118 to 1181, led Taira clan [1153 to 1181], and defeated Fujiwara clan, but Taira lost to Minamoto clan at Battle of Dan No Ura [1185].
He lived 1118 to 1170 and was Archbishop of Canterbury [1162 to 1170]. He opposed Henry II on jurisdiction over clergy and refused to ratify Constitutions of Clarendon [1164], which gave more power to king's courts. He fled to Europe. On his return, someone murdered him in Canterbury Cathedral by order of King Henry II. Reactions to his death caused Henry II to rescind Constitutions of Clarendon.
He lived 1147 to 1199, led Minamoto clan, and established military government in emperor's name at Kamakura [1185]. He won the long civil war and became first shogun [1192], by emperor's decree. He set up feudal system.
He lived 1155 to 1228 and led baron and prelate revolt against King John [1215], as Archbishop of Canterbury [1207 to 1228].
He lived 1310 to 1388 and ruled Tughluq Empire [1351 to 1388].
He lived 1335 to 1408, revolted against Mongols, and returned Korea to Koryo dynasty of China [1354]. He ended Koryo dynasty [1392] and founded Yi dynasty or Choson dynasty [1392 to 1910]. Capital was at Kyon-Song (Seoul).
He lived 1371 to 1433, was Chinese Muslim, and voyaged seven times to west to collect tribute for Ming dynasty. He traded gold, porcelain, silks, and spices. He reached Africa.
He lived 1369 to 1415. He burned at stake.
She lived 1412 to 1431 and was farmer's daughter. At age 16, she said saints told her to lead France against England to help the Dauphin. She persuaded the Dauphin, Charles VII, heir to throne, to give her troops, and she relieved besieged city of Orléans [1429] and defeated England at Patay [1429]. She helped crown Charles VII king at Rheims. She tried to regain Paris [1430], but Duke of Burgundy captured her at Compiegne and sold her to Duke of Bedford, regent of England. English tried her for heresy and burned her at stake in Rouen on May 30, 1431.
She became saint [1920].
He lived 1403 to 1468. Venice supported him.
He lived 1436 to 1490. Hosokawa and Yamana clans fought to choose new shogun [1443 to 1467]. This ended Muromachi Era [1333 to 1467]. He built Silver Pavilion or Ginkakuji temple [1489].
He lived 1452 to 1498. He burned at stake.
He lived 1476 to 1507. He lured his enemies to castle and had them strangled.
She lived 1480 to 1519 and had brilliant court.
Bishops of Cetinje ruled Montenegro [1516 to 1851].
He lived 1496 to 1550 and was first Duke of Guise [1520 to 1550], branching from House of Lorraine. Second Duke of Guise [1550 to 1588] controlled King Francis II of France, suppressed Protestant Huguenots, and provoked Wars of Religion [1562] by opposing Catherine de' Medici's tolerance. He helped plan St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Protestants in Paris. He formed Catholic League [1576] and revolted against Henry III [1588].
He lived 1494 to 1566. As Sultan of Ottoman Empire [1520 to 1566], he conquered Belgrade, Rhodes, Hungary at Mohacs, Persia, Arabian coast, and Mediterranean Sea under Admiral Barbarossa. He lost siege of Vienna, failed to take Malta and Tunis, and did not defeat Spain or Venice at sea. He allied with France against Austria [1536], reformed government, and favored arts.
He lived ? to 1533 and charted Pacific Ocean.
He lived 1530 to 1584 and was three years old when he became grand duke [1533]. Later, he began rule himself [1547 to 1584]. He took European Russia and Siberia, conquering Tatars under Yermak [1582]. He lost Poland and Sweden. He put down nobles, created army corps to put down rebellion, and became insane.
He lived 1506 to 1552 and was Roman Catholic saint and missionary [1539 to 1551].
He lived 1533 to 1584. As prince of Orange, Spain appointed him stadholder of Holland [1555]. Later, he supported the Gueux, who were Dutch and Flemish nobles opposed to intervention from Spain, and fought Spain. After deposing Philip II of Spain, he ruled United Provinces [1579 to 1584] and founded Dutch Republic. Someone assassinated him before struggles with Spain ended.
She lived 1519 to 1589. Catherine de' Medici, queen to Henry II, was regent for Charles IX of France [1560]. She persecuted Protestants.
He lived 1515 to 1595 and became Roman Catholic saint.
She lived 1515 to 1582 and became Roman Catholic saint.
He lived 1532 to 1595. From England, he took slaves from West Africa to Americas.
He lived 1500 to 1564 and founded Sao Paolo. Portugal ousted France from Rio de Janiero [1567].
He lived 1540 to 1596 and sailed around world [1577 to 1580]. He pirated ships from Spain and helped defeat Ireland. He destroyed fleet of Spain at Cadiz [1587] and helped defeat Spanish Armada [1588].
He lived 1542 to 1591 and became Roman Catholic saint and mystic.
He lived 1552 to 1618 and started Roanoke Colony on North Carolina Outer Banks, but it died out [1585 to 1597]. He introduced tobacco and potatoes to Europe. He was rival to Earl of Essex for Elizabeth's hand. James I became king and imprisoned him in Tower of London.
She lived 1587 to ? and was first child born in USA of parents from England.
He lived 1566 to 1601. After being her favorite, Queen Elizabeth I arrested and executed him for marrying secretly and for failing to put down rebellion in Ireland.
He lived 1543 to 1616 and invaded Korea [1592], trying to take China. He founded Tokugawa Shogunate [1603 to 1867] when he defeated other barons [1603]. He allowed no one to change occupation, stabilized existing classes, and took all swords away from classes. He encouraged foreign trade and tolerated missionaries at first.
She lived 1548 to 1606 and was wife of Philippe de Mornay.
She lived 1595 to 1617. Chief's daughter saved John Smith of Jamestown Colony from death. She later married an Englishman and went to England.
He lived 1588 to 1649. First Puritan governor worked closely with church.
He lived 1581 to 1660 and became Roman Catholic saint.
He lived 1585 to 1642 and became cardinal [1622] then prime minister [1624]. With Louis XIII, he founded absolute monarchy, put down Huguenots, controlled nobles, helped Protestants in Thirty Years War, founded French Academy, and depleted treasury. He controlled Anne of Austria, consort of Louis XIII.
He lived 1603 to 1683 and claimed that American Indians owned Puritan lands. He stood trial at General Court in Boston [1635] but escaped to Rhode Island [1636].
He lived 1586 to 1647, left Puritans in Massachusetts, and moved near Hartford, Connecticut [1636]. He wrote one of the first constitutions [1639], which required magistrate elections. Freemen controlled General Court.
She lived 1591 to 1643. The state banished her after her trial [1637] on charges of altering religious concepts.
He lived 1602 to 1661. Under Louis XIII and then Louis XIV, he dictated Peace of Westphalia, but his strong power and France's weak finances resulted in revolt of Fronde nobles and Parliament of Paris. He ended revolt of Fronde [1653]. He got Peace of the Pyrenees with Spain [1659]. He controlled the regent Anne of Austria.
He lived 1588 to 1665 and succeeded Winthrop as Massachusetts Bay Colony governor.
After Charles I died, Oliver Cromwell led Commonwealth.
He lived 1619 to 1683 and appointed council to codify laws. Under Louis XIV, he opposed Fourquet, who had become wealthy by mismanaging Treasury. He espoused the policy of protecting industry by tariffs and subsidies, regulating prices, making roads and canals, and colonizing {mercantilism, Colbert}.
He lived 1639 to 1723. As Puritan, he supported Massachusetts Bay Colony theocracy, supported education, and led Salem witch trials [1692]. His son was Cotton Mather, who lived 1663 to 1728.
He lived 1635 to 1688. English pirate took Spanish ships.
He lived 1666 to 1708 and was tenth and last Sikh guru. He changed Sikhs to Hindu practices, urging them to follow the Guru Granth Sahib scripture. He emphasized militarism, started a brotherhood {khalsa}, and gained land.
He lived 1645 to 1701 and pirated Spanish ships.
He lived 1653 to 1743, controlled Louis XIV [1726], corrected finances, and had to wage War of the Polish Succession and War of the Austrian Succession.
He lived 1697 to 1746. He wrote against the governor in his New York Weekly Journal and went to jail. His lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, asked the jury to consider the fact that the libel was true, which it was, so they acquitted him [1735]. Ever since then, truth has been defense against libel.
He lived 1717 to 1797. Criticism of War of the Austrian Succession by William Pitt caused him to lose prime ministership [1742].
She lived 1721 to 1764 and was mistress of Louis XV of France until she died. Her influence allied France with Austria in Thirty Years War. She patronized arts.
House of Orange became permanent stadholder.
He lived 1725 to 1798 and was adventurer and famous lover.
He lived 1708 to 1778 and became Prime Minister by his stand against Seven Years War [1757 to 1761]. He defeated France in India and Canada. He wanted to concede everything to the American colonies to keep them. His love of Constitution's rights made him the Great Commoner.
She lived 1743 to 1793 and was last mistress of Louis XV.
He lived 1732 to 1818. Appointed by Britain as governor-general [1773 to 1785], he reformed law and finances. Parliament impeached him [1787].
He lived 1722 to 1803 and persuaded Massachusetts Assembly to invite other colonies to send delegates to First Continental Congress.
He lived 1734 to 1820.
He lived 1732 to 1799. Second Continental Congress appointed him commander-in-chief [1775]. As first president [1989 to 1797], he approved Alexander Hamilton's finance plans and pursued conservative policies, leaning toward Federalists.
He lived 1755 to 1776. Britain hanged officer of USA as spy [1776]. He said, "I regret that I have but one life to lose for my country."
He lived 1756 to 1818 and was father of Robert E. Lee.
She lived 1752 to 1836 and supposedly sewed first USA flag.
He lived 1757 to 1834 and helped USA in Revolutionary War.
He lived 1747 to 1792.
He lived 1741 to 1801, was general, and betrayed USA plans to British in American Revolution.
He lived 1779 to 1820 and captained warship.
He lived 1747 to 1779.
He lived 1739 to 1791, annexed Crimea for Russia [1783], and advised Catherine II of Russia. He set up model villages {Potemkin village} as Catherine toured south Russia.
He lived 1759 to 1806. As prime minister under George III [1783 to 1801], he held general elections, cut debt through taxation, and led reforms in Parliament. He reformed India and Canada administrations. Wars with France caused financial crisis. He achieved union with Ireland but resigned when King George III vetoed his Catholic Emancipation Bill.
He lived 1755 to 1804. As first Treasury secretary, he established USA treasury system and Bank of the USA. He favored centralized and strong Federal government and favored Britain in foreign policy.
Washington. John Adams. Jefferson. Madison. Monroe. John Quincy Adams. Jackson. Van Buren. Harrison. Tyler. Polk. Taylor. Fillmore. Pierce. Buchanan. Lincoln. Johnson. Grant. Hayes. Garfield. Arthur. Cleveland. Harrison. McKinley. Theodore Roosevelt. Taft. Wilson. Harding. Coolidge. Hoover. Franklin Roosevelt. Truman. Eisenhower. Kennedy. Johnson. Nixon. Ford. Carter. Reagan. George H. W. Bush. Clinton. George W. Bush.
He lived 1743 to 1793 and led Cordeliers in National Convention against Girondists during French Revolution. Other revolutionaries stabbed him in his bath [1792].
He lived 1758 to 1794. Elected to National Convention, he led Jacobin radicals and put down Girondists. As Committee of Public Safety member, he started Reign of Terror and eliminated his rivals. The Convention resisted and beheaded him [1974].
He lived 1746 to 1817 and rebelled against Russia and Prussia. Before, he had fought in American Revolution.
He lived 1769 to 1821, defeated the noble's Vendemaire Revolt against Directory, and gained fame. In French Revolutionary Wars, he took Milan [1796], Venice [1797], and Austria [1801]. He became emperor [1804] and defeated Austria [1805] and Prussia [1806]. He became king of Italy [1807]. As emperor, he lost to united Europe [1814] and again at Waterloo [1815].
He lived 1735 to 1826. Second president prevented war with France. His wife was Abigail Adams.
He lived 1754 to 1838 and served as foreign minister under Directory and Napoleon.
He lived 1763 to 1848 and became wealthy fur merchant.
He lived 1778 to 1840.
He lived 1743 to 1826. Before becoming third president, he drafted Declaration of Independence [1776] and, in Virginia, abolished entail and primogeniture, enacted religious freedom, and started public schools and University of Virginia. He helped plan Washington, District of Columbia, and drafted Kentucky Resolution on states' rights. He bought Louisiana Purchase of all middle USA [1803] and sent Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore it [1803]. He tried to enforce Embargo Act [1807], which tried to block trade with France and England to force free trade.
Politics
He believed in free public education, self-sufficiency, and consent of the governed in renewable social contract. The greatest possible freedom is best, with minimal state. Independent farmers are a democracy foundation.
He lived 1756 to 1836 and killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel. His plan to colonize southwest USA led to trial for treason.
He lived 1774 to 1847 and began planting apple trees in midwest USA.
He lived 1777 to 1836 and started London bank [1805]. Later, firm opened banks in London, Vienna, Paris, and Naples. Banks loaned to countries and influenced policy.
He lived 1751 to 1836. Fourth president fought War of 1812. His wife was Dolly Madison.
He lived 1773 to 1859, married Marie Louise to Napoleon, and allied with France [1809]. He joined Allies [1813]. He dominated German Confederation and Congress of Vienna [1815]. He led Holy Alliance and Quadruple Alliance to maintain peace and order and set political boundaries. Holy Alliance had Austria, Russia, and Prussia. Revolution of 1848 ousted him.
He lived 1745 to 1813, fought Turkey [1770 to 1774], and defeated Napoleon.
He lived 1780 to 1826, was pirate of France against Spain, and helped USA in War of 1812.
He lived 1758 to 1831. Fifth president resolved boundary with Canada, got Florida, settled Liberia with former slaves, presided over Missouri Compromise, and formulated Monroe Doctrine, ending European influence in Americas.
He lived 1767 to 1848. Sixth president opposed slavery and developed Monroe Doctrine.
He lived 1786 to 1836.
He lived 1767 to 1845. Seventh president had Kitchen Cabinet of advisors. He started spoils system and emphasized Democratic Party. He antagonized Calhoun and Clay. He fought Bank of the USA, leading to requirement that only hard currency can buy public land. He ended National Bank and caused Panic of 1837.
He lived 1793 to 1877.
He lived 1838 to 1909. Abolitionist opposed violence and Civil War [1861].
He lived 1780 to 1831 and advocated total war.
He lived 1794 to 1876, failed to end revolution in Texas, defeated France, and failed in Mexican War. Juarez exiled him.
He lived 1833 to 1886.
He lived 1793 to 1836. Texas formed Republic of Texas and revolted against Mexico but lost.
He lived 1793 to 1863, was president of Texas Republic [1836 to 1844], and was governor of State of Texas afterward. As governor of Texas, he refused to secede from Union. Other leaders removed him from office [1861].
He lived 1796 to 1859.
He lived 1782 to 1862. Eighth president was follower of Jackson, but Panic of 1837 caused his unpopularity. He advocated Treasury system independent of banks.
He lived 1773 to 1841. Ninth president died soon.
He lived 1790 to 1862. Tenth president became president when Harrison died. He was Whig but vetoed Whig bank acts. He annexed Texas.
He lived 1806 to 1881 and was leader and Hegelian philosopher.
He lived 1809 to 1868 and fought against American natives.
She lived 1810 to 1850.
He lived 1795 to 1849, was follower of Andrew Jackson, reduced tariffs, directed Mexican War [1845 to 1848], annexed Texas [1845], settled trouble over Oregon Territory [1846], and got California, Nevada, Utah, and Arizona land [1848]. Treasury system became independent of banks.
He lived 1813 to 1861 and debated Lincoln [1858]. He advocated Squatter Sovereignty, permitting slavery in territories and allowing state applying for statehood to vote to be slave or free. At Freeport [1860], he said that territories can exclude slavery by voting, lost southern-Democrat support, and lost presidential race against Lincoln.
She lived 1815 to 1902 and worked for women's rights.
He lived 1782 to 1862 and ran for president as Free-Soil Party candidate.
He lived 1784 to 1850. Before 1849, 12th president fought American Indians and fought in Mexican War.
He lived 1800 to 1874. 13th president tried to implement Fugitive Slave act, avoided foreign affairs, and tried to advance Whig party. Later, he was Know-Nothing Party candidate.
He lived 1794 to 1858. Japan granted trade concessions to USA. He opened Japan to outside commerce and shipping, soon followed by trade agreements with other nations.
He lived 1804 to 1869. 14th president got Gadsen Purchase [1853] from Mexico in south Arizona. Sectionalism increased with Kansas-Nebraska Bill [1854]. The squatter controversy resulted in bloodshed.
He lived 1821 to 1906, changed constitution [1853], became president [1862 to 1870], and began reforms.
She lived 1820 to 1910 and founded hospitals in Crimean War, bettered soldier lives, and reformed nurse training to emphasize cleanliness, knowledge, and organization.
He lived 1791 to 1868. 15th president dealt with slavery issues.
He lived 1806 to 1872, led War of Reform, opposed Santa Anna, and resisted attempt of Maximilian to set up French Empire, He led after Emperor Maximilian was overthrown [1867] and changed constitution. He put down rebellion by Diaz [1871].
He lived 1807 to 1882 and unified Italy under his 1000 armed citizen followers {red shirts} by defeating Naples and Sicily [1860]. He gave his conquests to King Victor Emmanuel II.
He lived 1812 to 1887 and started munitions factory.
He lived 1823 to 1878, controlled Tammany Hall as Democrat, and accumulated a fortune by graft.
He lived 1824 to 1863 and tied first Battle of Bull Run, won Shenandoah Valley Campaign, won second Battle of Bull Run, and died at Chancellorsville.
He lived 1808 to 1889 and led Confederate States of America.
He lived 1809 to 1865. 16th-president election started Civil War. South believed it needed slaves to produce cotton, which it exported for profit. He had trouble with divided cabinet, discontent over war, bad generals, and abolitionists.
John Wilkes Booth assassinated Abraham Lincoln at Ford's Theater in Washington.
Emancipation Proclamation [1863] freed 4,000,000 slaves, mostly on cotton plantations. This act diminished states' rights.
He lived 1818 to 1893 and was Confederate general.
He lived 1822 to 1885. After he fought at Shiloh in Virginia, Vicksburg in Mississippi, and Chattanooga, Tennessee, he led Wilderness Campaign for the North, which led to Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse in Virginia [1865].
He lived 1807 to 1872. Confederate general stopped march on Richmond in Seven Days battles, won second Battle of Bull Run, fought to standstill at Antietam while trying to invade North, won at Fredericksburg, won at Chancellorsville, lost at Gettysburg, fought Grant in Wilderness Campaign, endured siege at Petersburg, and surrendered at Appomattox Courthouse [1865].
He lived 1815 to 1898 and was first chancellor. He started Austro-Prussian War [1866]. He organized Germany under Prussia as North German Confederation. He started Franco-Prussian War [1869]. He created German Empire under King William I. He passed social security and labor laws to block more socialism. Kaiser Wilhelm II dismissed him [1890].
He lived 1843 to 1883 and invented Marquis of Queensberry rules for boxing [1865], published [1867].
He lived 1808 to 1875. 17th president became president after Booth assassinated Lincoln. He proposed mild Reconstruction for South, encouraged Seward to purchase Alaska from Russia [1867], and barely escaped impeachment for trying to remove Stanton, Secretary of War, who was a radical Republican.
He lived 1847 to 1882.
He lived 1792 to 1868, was Senator, and wanted to punish South.
He lived 1811 to 1874, was Senator from Massachusetts, and wanted to punish South.
He lived 1873 to 1942 and started New York Central railroad and shipping lines.
He lived 1804 to 1881, was Conservative {Tory}, and passed Reform Bill, widening right to vote to workingmen. He annexed Fiji Islands, Transvaal, and Cyprus. He fought Afghanistan and Zulu tribe in Africa. He bought control of Suez Canal. He reduced Russian power in Balkans at Congress of Berlin. In 1874, he became Prime Minister again.
He lived 1809 to 1898. Liberal passed Irish Land Act, enacted civil-service reform, started ballot vote, ended sale of army commissions, reformed Parliament, and started public education. His career ended when he advocated Home Rule for Ireland.
He lived 1822 to 1885. 18th president allowed passage of harsh Reconstruction Act for South. He allowed legal tender notes {greenback money} to stay in circulation after Panic of 1873, though gold and silver reserves backing the money were low. He associated with dishonest politicians. His secretary of state was Hamilton Fish.
He lived 1840 to 1902 and caricatured Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall. He used donkey for Democrats and elephant for Republicans.
He lived 1856 to 1915 and started Tuskegee Institute.
He lived 1810 to 1891 and owned circus called "The Greatest Show on Earth". He organized American Museum of freaks.
He lived 1822 to 1893 and was the 19th president.
She lived 1852 to 1903.
He lived 1837 to 1876.
He lived 1852 to 1892 and reformed law and education. He lost some of Sudan to Britain.
He lived 1830 to 1915 and increased foreign investment, but it only helped the wealthy. His term ended with revolution.
Crazy Horse lived 1840 to 1877 and was Oglala Lakota chief. Dull Knife lived 1810 to 1883 and was Northern Cheyenne chief.
He lived 1831 to 1881. 20th president opposed boss and Senator Roscoe Conkling and prosecuted frauds involving mail routes {star route, Garfield}.
He lived 1843 to 1914 and defeated South American natives, opened south Argentina, set up federal system, and settled boundary with Chile.
Group terrorized Sicily.
He lived 1830 to 1886. 21st president passed Civil Service Act.
He lived 1850 to 1924 and founded and led American Federation of Labor (AFL), which was against socialism and profit sharing.
He lived 1850 to 1937. He helped found Czechoslovakia [1918] and had problems with extremists.
He lived 1845 to 1917.
He lived 1856 to 1924. 28th president [1913 to 1921] started New Freedom reforms. He sent Marines to Vera Cruz, Mexico [1914]. He occupied Haiti and Santo Domingo [1914 to 1916]. He passed Farm Loan Act [1916]. He set up Federal Reserve. USA became a creditor nation, as Allies paid in gold, sold their assets, and bought goods from USA. He entered World War I [1917] after earlier neutrality. He presented 14 points for peace at Paris Peace Conference [1919]. Republicans under Lodge blocked USA entry into League of Nations [1920]. His health broke while campaigning [1920] and he died [1921].
He lived 1837 to 1908 and was 22nd president.
He lived 1861 to 1896 and led independence from Spain movement.
He lived 1844 to 1939. American Federation of Labor (AFL) formed.
He lived 1833 to 1901, was 23rd president, was under control of Republicans in Senate, approved McKinley Tariff Act for high tariffs, and held first Pan-American Conference.
He lived 1836 to 1914 and had city develop water supply and public transportation.
He lived 1844 to 1910 and had city develop water supply and public transportation.
He lived 1835 to 1919, was steel manufacturer and philanthropist, and built 2800 libraries and Carnegie Hall in New York City.
She lived 1820 to 1906 and worked for women's rights.
He lived 1839 to 1915, headed Standard Oil Company, and started Rockefeller Foundation.
He lived 1837 to 1908, was 24th president upheld the gold standard, broke Pullman strike with army [1894], forced Venezuela boundary dispute to arbitration, and wanted low tariffs but got high tariffs from Congress.
He lived 1851 to 1941. He discovered Minoan palace at Knossos [1894] and restored it somewhat.
He lived 1859 to 1935 and was French army officer. He had a German and Jewish background, so a faction accused him of treason for passing secret documents, and a court convicted him [1894] {Dreyfus Affair}. His brother reopened case [1897], which split France for nine years into military, royalist, Catholic, republican, socialist, and anti-cleric factions. The state cleared him later [1906]. Dreyfus Affair spurred church and state separation.
He lived 1860 to 1925 and gave the "Cross of Gold" speech in defense of free silver coinage. Later, he defended religious fundamentalism in Scopes "monkey trial".
She lived 1857 to 1915 and wrote first household cookbook [1896].
He lived 1843 to 1901. 25th president insisted on the gold standard and worked for business interests with Mark Hanna, Republican leader. After USS Maine sank in Havana, Cuba [1898], he instigated Spanish-American War, though Spain wanted to avoid war. Spanish fleet lost at Manila Bay and later near Cuba. He obtained Hawaii. He started Open Door Policy in China, allowing no foreign intervention, just trading. Currency Act [1900] ensured the gold standard. Someone assassinated him.
He lived 1860 to 1904 and started Zionist Movement to create Jewish state in Palestine.
She lived 1860 to 1935 and founded Hull House, settlement house.
He lived 1833 to 1912. He formulated a military plan (Schlieffen Plan) to go through Belgium to Paris and defeat France in 42 days.
He lived 1874 to 1926.
He lived 1850 to 1931 and was tea merchant and started America's Cup sailboat racing.
She lived 1846 to 1911 and used hatchet to destroy saloons.
He lived 1862 to 1935.
He lived 1869 to 1948 and led India nationalist movement. He was pacifist, followed strict abstinence, and used passive resistance and hunger strikes. He first used non-violence {satyagraha} in South Africa to protest racism. He used same practices in India against class system and colonialism. He advocated home industries and end to untouchable class.
Ethics
People should not hurt other living things. Persuasion, self-control, and self-denial are good, but the process requires zeal for truth.
He lived 1837 to 1913 and financed railroads and U.S. Steel.
He lived 1858 to 1919. He led invading horsemen {Rough Riders} in Spanish-American War in Cuba [1898]. The 26th president split big businesses with Sherman Anti-Trust Act. He encouraged conservation. He established Roosevelt corollary to Monroe Doctrine and used money and threats in Latin America, especially at Santo Domingo in Caribbean. He kept Open Door policy in China and mediated Russo-Japanese War. He founded Bull Moose Party.
He lived 1855 to 1925 and was Progressive governor and senator from Wisconsin. His program was Wisconsin Idea. He led Progressive Party in 1924.
He lived 1866 to 1925 and founded Kuomintang [1905]. After defeating Ch'ing Dynasty, he became president [1911]. He left the government of warlords in north China [1919] and went south, where he organized Kuomintang. He split with Communists [1927].
He lived 1881 to 1938 and led Young Turks who restored constitution to Ottoman Empire [1908]. He was general in World War I and then organized Nationalist Party. He defeated invasion by Greece at Smyrna [1922], abolished sultanate [1922], and founded Turkey [1922]. He obtained peace at Lausanne Conference [1923] and then westernized Turkey.
She lived 1883 to 1971 and created perfumes.
He lived 1857 to 1930. 27th president broke up trusts, intervened in South America at Nicaragua, had high tariffs, favored some businesses, and started income tax, postal savings system, and parcel post. He later was USA Supreme Court Chief Justice.
He lived 1870 to 1924. He led Russian Revolution [1917] and Bolshevik party. He fought Mensheviks in civil war [1917 to 1919]. He started Soviet Union or Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. He founded Comintern or Third International [1919], to spread Marxism by uniting all Communist countries. He tried New Economic Policy [1922], allowing private enterprise to save economy.
Politics
Leninism was the idea that imperialism preceded capitalism downfall, and a strong Communist Party must guide the proletariat.
He lived 1857 to 1941 and started Boy Scouts.
He lived 1878 to 1923, helped Madero in Mexican Revolution, controlled north Mexico with Emil Zapata, and took Mexico City [1915]. Later, he raided USA border.
He lived 1872 to 1916 and controlled family of Czar Nicholas II through mysticism and supposed healing power.
He lived 1881 to 1922 and led Young Turks.
He lived 1841 to 1929 and allied with Czech, Russia, and China. Ferdinand Foch was marshal of France.
He lived 1847 to 1934 and was German field marshal in World War I.
He lived 1863 to 1945 and ended veto power of House of Lords during social insurance issue [1910]. He opposed imperialism. He participated in Paris Peace Conference [1919].
He lived 1874 to 1965. The government dismissed him after failure in Dardanelles campaign [1916]. He formed Atlantic Charter with Franklin Roosevelt of USA, defining United Nations. He was at conferences of Casablanca, Quebec, Cairo, Yalta, Tehran, and Potsdam [1940 to 1946].
He lived 1851 to 1929, was Allied supreme commander in World War I, and planned Grand Offensive with Haig [1918].
He lived 1884 to 1948, helped found Czechoslovakia [1918], was president [1935 to 1948], and had problems with extremists.
He lived 1868 to 1963 and was radical editor, educator, and writer.
He lived 1878 to 1944 and staged coup [1921] to become shah.
He lived 1865 to 1923. 29th president promised normalcy. He sponsored Washington Naval Conference, limiting ships and protecting China. Teapot Dome Scandal and other scandals happened in his term but he died.
He lived 1893 to 1976, founded Communist Party (CCP) [1921], and allied with nationalists. He then lost cities to Kuomintang nationalists [1927]. He directed civil war in rural south China. He ruled Kiangsi province [1930 to 1934]. He led Long March [1934] from Kiangsi through mountains to Shensi in north. He forced Nationalists to flee to Formosa Island (Taiwan) and became People's Republic of China chairman [1949], with government in Beijing. 1,000,000 died. Chou En-lai was Premier. He started Great Leap Forward [1958]. He started Cultural Revolution [1965].
He lived 1883 to 1945 and became Fascist premier by coup d'état [1922]. Italy had high inflation and high unemployment. Fascists terrorized communists and democrats and advocated authoritarianism. He marched nationalist war veterans on Rome during strikes and unrest. He slowly became dictator and suspended legislature [1925]. He formed corporate state and combined employers and employees into guilds controlled by government. He signed Lateran Treaty with the pope. He was victorious in Ethiopia and Albania and allied with Germany in World War II. Allies invaded Italy [1943]. Partisans shot him [1945].
He lived 1872 to 1933. 30th president was taciturn, honest, and simple. He preferred laissez-faire economy and small government.
He lived 1903 and 1936 and became dictator with king's complicity.
He lived 1877 to 1945 and first was reformer but then conservative.
He lived 1879 to 1953 and got rid of Leon Trotsky [1927]. Trotsky wanted pure worldwide communism and fled to Mexico. He started Five Year Plans to industrialize nation and collectivize farms [1927]. He purged enemies in 1930's. Germany attacked Russia [1941]. He met with Allied leaders at Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam. Molotov was Premier. Beria was secret-police chief.
He lived 1924 to 1972 and was first director of Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). He meddled in politics and investigated suspected communists and leftists.
He lived 1847 to 1934. Junkers or wealthy industrialists controlled Weimar Republic. Stresemann was foreign minister. Economy had recovered from World War I. At end, Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor.
He lived 1867 to 1935.
He lived 1869 to 1951.
He lived 1902 to 1974 and first flew alone across Atlantic Ocean nonstop.
He lived 1889 to 1974 and controlled Portugal [1932 to 1968].
He lived 1874 to 1964 and was Secretary of Commerce in 1920's. Great Depression started after 31st-president election. He tried to balance budget, defended the gold standard, urged public works, provided loans, handled veterans march on Washington, held ineffective disarmament talks, and had bank crisis [1932]. His Treasury Secretary was Andrew Mellon.
He lived 1882 to 1975. Civil war ended in south Ireland. Sinn Fein or Irish Republican Army became outlaws.
He lived 1893 to 1946, was Nazi president of Reichstag [1932], founded Gestapo secret police [1935], and controlled economy. He planned German air war for World War II.
He lived 1897 to 1945.
He lived 1889 to 1945 and was National Socialist (Nazi). Hindenburg named him chancellor [1932]. He gained absolute power by outlawing Communists after blaming them for setting fire to Reichstag legislature [1934]. He rearmed Germany and allied with Italy [1936]. Munich Pact gave Germany Czechoslovakia [1937]. He set up totalitarian state that emphasized anti-Semitism. Concentration camps killed five million people. He started World War II [1939] with blitzkrieg through Poland, Belgium, and France. He lost Battle of Britain in air [1940]. He bogged down in Russia [1941]. He committed suicide [1945] in Berlin.
He lived 1882 to 1945. Before 1933, the 32nd president recovered from polio and became governor of New York. In 1933, he declared bank holiday, set up many public agencies to hire unemployed and use natural resources, and began New Deal policies with many new laws. He had Brain Trust of economic advisors: Henry Wallace, Harry Hopkins, and Henry Morgenthau. He tried to reorganize Supreme Court [1937]. He set up Lend-Lease plan to supply Britain [1940]. He attended Allied conferences. He declared four human rights or Four Freedoms [1941]: freedom of expression and religion and freedom from want and fear.
His wife was the humanitarian Eleanor Roosevelt.
He lived 1896 to 1969 and was moderate Republican leader.
He lived 1876 to 1948 and led Moslem League.
He lived 1895 to 1970 and started widespread reforms [1934 to 1940].
He lived 1882 to 1947 and led Fusion party {reform party}.
He lived 1880 to 1969, was United Mine Workers of America president [1920 to 1960], and started Congress of Industrial Organizations [1935] (CIO).
He lived 1878 to 1944. Philippines became commonwealth under USA.
He lived 1873 to 1944 and was Republican presidential candidate.
He lived 1871 to 1941.
He lived 1892 to 1975 and abolished all parties except Falange fascist party. He declared monarchy, with himself as head of state [1947].
He lived 1870 to 1965 and advised Roosevelt.
She lived 1897 to 1937 and disappeared in Pacific Ocean on her around-the-world trip in a two-passenger airplane.
He lived 1893 to 1946.
He lived 1892 to 1944. Republican candidate for president campaigned for peace.
He lived 1882 to 1946, took over Romania with Iron Guard's help, and fought Russia.
He lived 1884 to 1948 and started war with USA [1942].
He lived 1880 to 1964 and commanded all Far East forces for USA in World War II. He led Japan occupation [1945 to 1952].
He lived 1890 to 1969 and led Allies in North Africa in World War II. Allies appointed him Supreme Commander in Europe [1944].
He lived 1890 to 1973.
He lived 1884 to 1972. 33rd president became president when Roosevelt died in office. He went to Potsdam Conference [1945], which divided Germany into four sectors and authorized war trials. He authorized the hydrogen bomb [1945]. He stated Truman Doctrine [1947] to financially aid Greece and Turkey, which communism threatened, and to provide support for all peoples threatened by communism. He presided over Marshall Plan [1947] to rebuild Europe. He tried to enact Fair Deal of price controls and civil rights. He finalized North Atlantic Treaty [1948]. He sent troops to Korea [1950]. He dismissed General MacArthur [1952]. He pressured steel industry.
He lived 1892 to 1976 and was in oil business.
He lived 1901 to 1970.
He lived 1892 to 1980, deposed king, and defeated Mikhailovich in Yugoslav civil war between two Nazi resistors. Yugoslavia became Communist but was independent of Russia.
He lived 1896 to 1968 and was United Nations Secretary-General.
He lived 1895 to 1974.
He lived 1880 to 1959 and developed Marshall Plan or European Recovery Program, which integrated all aid to Europe. He was Army chief of staff in World War II.
He lived 1889 to 1953. Taft-Hartley law [1947] was about labor.
He lived 1909 to 1957, investigated Communist party, and labeled many liberals traitors. Army-McCarthy hearings exposed his methods and led to his defeat [1954].
He lived 1889 to 1964. After British left India, he led Congress Party, favored industrialization and socialism, fought Pakistan for Kashmir, fought Portugal for Goa, and fought China over border.
He lived 1887 to 1975 and led Republic of China.
He lived 1911 to 1960 and was famous lover and celebrity, married to Rita Hayworth.
He lived 1876 to 1967 and led Christian Democrats, centrist party of West Germany. Opposition was Social Democrats, socialist party.
He lived 1886 to 1973 and led Labor party.
He lived 1904 to 1971 and worked at United Nations.
He lived 1882 to 1967. With Communist Tudeh party, he deposed king [1951].
He lived 1888 to 1959 and advocated alliances against Communists and supported superior nuclear forces.
He lived 1890 to 1969. 34th president got truce in Korea, set Eisenhower Doctrine for Middle East defense against Communism, and sent troops to desegregate schools in Little Rock, Arkansas.
He lived 1905 to 1961 and was United Nations Secretary-General. He tried to make his office stronger through personal action, especially in Congo, where he died in plane crash.
He lived 1894 to 1971 and was member of Politburo [1939], became first secretary when Stalin died [1953], denounced Stalin [1956], and became Premier [1958]. His policy was "peaceful coexistence".
He lived 1985 to 1987.
He lived 1882 to 1954. After ruling [1930 to 1954], power struggle began, he lost, and military took over.
He lived 1894 to 1980 and led AFL-CIO.
He lived 1896 to 1958 and liberalized Communism in Hungary. Russia removed him.
He lived 1907 to 1970 and led AFL/CIO.
He lived 1929 to 1968 and led Southern Christian Leadership Organization and used passive resistance and boycotts to force desegregation.
He lived 1918 to 1970 and started coup that deposed King Farouk I. He nationalized Suez Canal and started land reform. France, Britain, and Israel tried to take Suez Canal [1956] but failed.
He lived 1926 to ?. The 26th of July revolutionary movement overthrew Juan Bautista, and Cuba became Communist.
He lived 1928 to 1967.
He lived 1913 to 1975 and led Teamster's Union.
He lived 1934 to 1968 and was first person to orbit Earth, once, in spacecraft and return.
He lived 1923 to 1998 and was first American in space.
He lived 1917 to 1963. 35th president tried to start New Frontier and Peace Corps, supported Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba by insurgents, won Cuban missile crisis, got nuclear test ban treaty, and Oswald assassinated him.
He lived 1909 to 1974 and was United Nations Secretary-General. He dealt with Netherlands New Guinea independence, trouble over Cuba, and Congo reunification.
He lived 1908 to 1973. 36th president led nation into Vietnam War and Great Society.
She lived 1898 to 1978.
He lived 1909 to 1998 and was conservative Republican presidential candidate.
He lived 1904 to 1980 and led USSR.
He lived 1906 to 1982 and led USSR. He became Communist Party first secretary after he took power from Krushchev.
He lived 1934 to ? and first walked in space.
She lived 1917 to 1984.
He lived 1913 to 1994. 37th president opened China [1972], ended Vietnam War [1973], and fought inflation. Watergate scandal forced him to resign [1974].
He lived 1918 to ? and was United Nations Secretary-General. He was from Austria.
He lived 1907 to 1998 and led after military-junta failed.
He lived 1895 to 1974 and led after military junta failed.
He lived 1915 to 2006 and used army to take rule from elected socialist president Salvador Allende and had many people killed.
He lived 1913 to 2006. 38th president pardoned Richard Nixon.
He lived 1904 to 1997. After Mao died, China increased economic growth under Deng Xiaoping.
He lived 1924 to ?. 39th president fought inflation and slow growth. Iran took Americans hostage in Tehran until day after he left office.
He lived 1943 to ?. Shipyard workers strike led to Solidarity trade union, with repression in December.
He lived 1911 to 2004. 40th president enacted large tax cuts, caused government debt, and built up military.
Leonid Brezhnev died, and Russia had old caretaker leaders.
He lived 1931 to ? and stressed glasnost (openness) and perestroika (reorganization).
He lived 1943 to ?. Elections became open to all parties, including Solidarity union. Solidarity won election and formed coalition.
He lived 1924 to ?. 41st president fought war with Iraq over Kuwait occupation [1991]. Economy was bad.
He lived 1936 to ? and became president of independent Czechoslovakia [1989].
He lived 1946 to ?. 42nd president got balanced budget agreement. He escaped impeachment for sexual affair coverup [1998]. He passed NAFTA trade agreement for Mexico and USA. He got Palestine and Israel to agree on peace and Palestinian state. He presided over prosperity.
He lived 1946 to ?. 43rd president attacked Afghanistan [2001] and Iraq [2003] and tried to end worldwide terrorism by force and monetary measures. He lowered taxes and increased debt. Economy was bad.
He lived 1961 to ?. 44th president tried to stimulate economy and bailout big businesses.
Organic molecules formed in seas.
Life began as non-photosynthetic one-celled bacteria-like organisms.
Methane archaebacteria began.
Ancient-rock calcium-carbonate or silica-sediment layers {stromatolite} contain blue-green-algae cyanobacteria secretions.
Photosynthetic bacteria used bacteriochlorophyll to absorb near-infrared light to make sulfur or sulfate molecules.
Photosynthetic bacteria oxygen production became significant.
Photosynthetic organisms became abundant, enabled energy storage, added oxygen to atmosphere, and removed carbon dioxide from atmosphere.
Cyanobacteria blue-green algae formed abundant oxygen.
Eukaryotes began.
Multicellular organisms appeared.
.
Metazoa flourished, as air oxygen concentration became high enough. Worms, jellyfish, mollusks, and other invertebrates began.
.
Worms up to one meter long and flatworms like planaria and tapeworms appeared, as air oxygen concentration became high enough.
Organisms with front and back, and right and left, began. Body parts came in pairs.
Prechordates began.
Sediments trapped multicellular animals from many phyla.
Pikaia gracilens was first chordate, with segmented notochord and zigzag muscle bands.
Roundish Flat Worm (Bilateria) had bilateral symmetry and was vertebrate and arthropod ancestor.
Hard-shelled animals began.
From green algae came moss.
From green algae came liverworts.
Jawless fish were first vertebrates.
Head bones evolved to make muscled and bony jaw.
Vascular plants began.
Bony fish have mouth at front end, fin rays that attach to muscles, and skin scales.
Rhipidistians had internal nares to lungs and had fins at ends of stumps, which allowed them to push onto shore.
Lobefin fish had adults that survived in fresh water and on land, had rear lobefins, and had lungs.
It had fish jaw, fins, and scales, but tetrapod skull, neck, ribs, and pectoral fins, with thin arm, wrist, and hand bones.
Amphibians evolved from Rhipidistians.
Earliest reptiles were 20 centimeters long. First anapsid was cotylosaur.
Bird and mammal ancestors separated.
Sphenodons were diapsids, were one meter long, had large beak-like snout, had spine down back, had third eye, and had nictating membranes over regular eyes.
Diapsid reptiles evolved from anapsids. Synapsids evolved from diapsids.
Mammal-like synapsid finback synapsids were 60 centimeters long, had canine teeth, and chewed using jaw and jaw muscles different than anapsids and diapsids.
Archosaurs were diapsid sphenodons and had two large back limbs, two small front limbs, long tail, and teeth in sockets.
Thecodonts were archosaurs, had insulation, and had reptilian teeth.
Nautilus lived.
Pristerognathid reptiles evolved from pelycosaurs, weighed 50 kilograms, were fast trotters, and were endotherms.
Dinosaurs were mostly diapsids and began in middle Triassic.
Therapsids descended from pristerognathids and were warm-blooded. They had larynx.
Cynodonts evolved from therapsids, were dog-sized, had dentary bone, had big canine teeth, had hard palate, had turbinals, and were nocturnal.
Dicynodonts began from separate therapsid branch and were herbivores.
Cynodonts acquired meat-eating teeth.
Small reptiles acquired beaks.
Leopard-sized cynodont plant-eaters had incisors and cheek teeth.
Small brachiosaur-like reptiles began.
Monotremes evolved from juvenile cynodonts by pedomorphism, are small, have mammary glands, are warm-blooded, have red blood cells, have diaphragm, have bony palate, have voluntary muscle, and have neocortex.
Early birds were warm-blooded and had feathers.
Tribosphenida had tribosphenic molars.
Archaeopteryx was first bird but did not fly.
13-kilogram one-meter mammals lived on ground in Miocene: Repenomamus giganticus and Repenomamus robustus.
Ant subfamily Dorylinae evolved in mid-Cretaceous.
Theria marsupials developed from monotremes.
Eutheria placental mammals developed from Theria.
Primitive insectivores evolved from placental mammals, looked like tree shrews, had forward vision, and had grasping hand.
Grasses began 55 to 71 million years ago.
First primates developed from primitive insectivores and were like galagos, lorises, and lemurs.
Monkeys evolved from prosimians and were like New World monkeys: marmosets, tamarins, squirrel monkeys, and spider monkeys.
Capybara and chincilla ancestors {caviomorph rodents} {rodent, caviomorph} came from Africa to South America on floating vegetation.
New World monkeys came from Africa to South America on floating vegetation.
Parapithecus was ancestor of Old World monkeys.
Old World monkeys differentiated from New World monkeys in Oligocene epoch. Old World monkeys are like macaque, baboon, and mandrill.
Carnivores began.
Lemurs began.
Proconsul, a lesser ape, was ancestor of all hominids.
Pongid lesser apes separated from Old World monkeys.
Lesser ape had flat teeth, ate fruit, was arboreal, had sexual dimorphism, and had flat face.
Lesser ape had long and strong jaws with large incisor teeth, flat-sided canine teeth, flat premolars, and flat molars.
Great ape had teeth enamel and ate nuts and husked foods.
Great apes evolved from Proconsul-like lesser apes.
A great ape {Sivapithecus} was orangutan ancestor (Pongo pygmaeus). By Late Miocene, Sivapithecus lived only in tropical Southeast Asia.
It had long and strong jaws with large incisor teeth, flat-sided canine teeth, flat premolars, and flat molars. It had short snout. It had grasping hands and feet and extendable elbow for hanging and swinging in trees. It ate ripe fruit and grew slowly.
Related species were Gigantopithecus in India and Lufengpithecus in southeast Asia.
A great ape {Dryopithecus} {Ouranopithecus} was ancestor of African great apes. Dryopithecus had long and strong jaws with large incisor teeth, flat-sided canine teeth, flat premolars, and flat molars. It had grasping hands and feet and extendable elbow for hanging and swinging in trees. It ate ripe fruit and grew slowly. It had face that tilted down {klinorhynchy, great ape}, unlike up {airorhynchy, great ape} as in orangutans, gibbons, and siamangs. It also had larger lower face, lower and larger skull, and flatter nose than orangutans. By Late Miocene, Dryopithecus lived only in tropical Africa. Related species are Griphopithecus in Germany and Turkey, Ankarapithecus in Turkey, Ouranopithecus in Greece, Oreopithecus in Italy, and Heliopithecus in Arabia.
Anthropoid apes, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, differentiated from early apes in hands, feet, arms, and legs.
Genus Pan split from gorillas and was like chimpanzee and bonobo.
Great ape ate leaves and had grasping hands and feet.
Hominins differentiated from Pan.
Hominin had small canine teeth, snouty face, large neck, sloping forehead, and small brain, with 2.3 encephalization quotient [found by Michael Brunet]. It came from common primate ancestor and was ancestor of Ardipithecus kadabba.
hominin.
Hominin came from Sahelanthropus tchadensis and was ancestor of Ardipithecus ramidus. Ardi means fundamental. Kadabba means beginning family ancestor.
Hominin lived in woods and walked upright [found by Tim White]. It was in Afar Region. Hominin came from Ardipithecus kadabba and was ancestor of Australopithecus anamensis. Ardi means fundamental. Ramidus means root.
Hominin lived in bushland and walked upright. It came from Ardipithecus ramidus and was ancestor of Australopithecus afarensis and Australopithecus africanus.
Varied and separated habitats isolated four hominin species: Australopithecus afarensis, gracile Australopithecus africanus, robust Australopithecus robustus, and robust Australopithecus boisei.
Walking upright {bipedalism}| involves push with toes, swing, heel strike, and stance. It causes inline walking. Extended knee joint locks knee for upright standing. Bipedalism is efficient walking and allows carrying and using hand tools. It preceded tool use and meat eating by one million years and so preceded hunting or scavenging.
Australopithecus afarensis left footprints [found by Mary Leakey].
Bushy grasslands and grassy woodlands use a metabolic pathway {C4 metabolic pathway} {four-carbon metabolic pathway}. Bushes, trees, and shrubs use a metabolic pathway {three-carbon metabolic pathway}. Bushy grasslands and grassy woodlands replaced bushes, trees, and shrubs.
Kenyanthropus platyops had flat face, small teeth, and head crest.
hominin.
Gracile Australopithecus afarensis came from Australopithecus anamensis.
Australopithecus afarensis three-year old female lived in Afar region. It still has shoulder blades and hyoid bone. Semicircular canals are like apes and A. africanus. Shoulder socket is like apes. Hyoid is like apes.
Australopithecus afarensis lived in East Africa [found by Leakey].
Taung child was Australopithecus africanus.
Gracile Australopithecus africanus [first found in 1924] was at Swartkrans, Makapansgat, Olduvai, and Lake Rudolph. It came from Australopithecus anamensis.
Paranthropus aethiopicus, Paranthropus crassidens, Paranthropus robustus, and Paranthropus boisei were robust australopithecines.
Hominin came from Australopithecus afarensis and was ancestor of Homo habilus.
hominin.
Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus was robust australopithecine.
Homo habilis split from Australopithecus to make genus Homo and formed Lower Paleolithic Oldowan Culture. Louis Leakey found Homo habilis.
Australopithecus boisei or Paranthropus boisei was not on human line, was robust, and lived in east Africa.
Australopithecus robustus or Paranthropus robustus was not on human line and came from Australopithecus africanus.
Homo rudolfensis or Kenyanthropus rudolfensis was like Homo habilis.
hominin.
hominin.
hominin.
Homo ergaster was early African Homo erectus and was first hominin with human body form. It came from Homo habilis. Homo ergaster reached Dmanisi, Georgia [-1700000].
Homo erectus was 1.65 meters tall and came from Homo habilis.
Ternifine had Homo erectus mauritanicus. Broken Hill, Rhodesia had Rhodesia man. Choskoutieh, China had Sinanthropus, Homo erectus pekinensis, or Peking man [-500000]. Lantian, China, had Homo erectus lantianensis. Longgupo, China, had Homo erectus [-1900000]. Donggutuo, China, had Homo erectus [-1000000]. Gongwangling, China, had Homo erectus [-1100000]. Java, Indonesia had Homo erectus [-1800000 to -25000]. Orce, Spain had Homo erectus [-1000000]. Ngandong, Indonesia had Homo erectus soleensis or Java man [-500000]. Trinil, Indonesia had Pithecanthropus or Homo erectus. 'Ubeidiya, Israel, had Homo erectus [-1500000 to -1000000]. Olduvai had Homo erectus.
Homo ergaster or Homo erectus reached Java.
Homo erectus, Homo ergaster, Homo georgicus, and Homo habilis had Oldowan culture.
Zinjanthropus was Homo erectus, used stone tools and clubs, was vegetarian, and had small brain.
He was Homo erectus and was up to six feet tall. He had domed thick skull, smaller jaw, and bare skin. He used stone tools, ate meat, and had longer development.
Humans came from Java and had stone tools.
Homo antecessor was in north Spain.
Homo heidelbergensis is Archaic Homo sapiens and came from Home erectus. Atapuerca, Spain, had Homo [-780000]. Ceprano, Italy, had Homo [-800000].
Neanderthals evolved from non-human hominin line between -500000 and -700000. Heidelberg man, Solo man, and Rhodesia man were Neanderthal. Solo man was ancestor of Australian aborigines. Homo neanderthalensis was at Swanscombe, Europe; Neander Valley, near Düsseldorf, Germany [found 1856]; La-Chapelle-aux-Saints, France [1895], called "Old Man"; Steinheim, Europe; and Carmel, Israel. By -200,000, Neanderthals were in China.
Richard Leakey excavated Qafzeh and Skhul caves in Kibish rock formation beside Omo River and found Omo I and Omo II skeletons.
Homo sapiens came from Homo erectus. Homo sapiens lived in Africa and west Asia [-100000]: Eritrea [-125000]; Congo [-90000]; Blombos Cave, South Africa [-70000]; Klasies River mouth, South Africa [-70000]; Omo-Kibish, Ethiopia; and Mount Carmel and Qafzeh, north Israel [-95000]. Liujiang, China, had Homo sapiens [-67000]. Lake Muno, Australia, had Homo sapiens [-60000 to -40000]. Niah, Borneo, had Homo sapiens [-40000].
Perhaps, Homo sapiens migrated from Africa at -81000 or -50000. If -81000, they went across Red Sea to Yemen, then India, then Australia [-72000], and then Europe [-44000]. If -50000, they went to the Levant, then Europe [-44000].
Homo sapiens idaltu had heavy browridge and round cranium [found by Tim D. White].
hominin.
Humans {Homo floresiensis} were one meter tall and lived in Liang Bua cave [-16000]. It came from Homo erectus and became extinct. Flores islanders speak of "grandmother who eats everything" {ebu gogo}. Sumatra islanders speak of similar thing {orang pendek}.
South Asian peoples diverged from North Asian and Caucasoid peoples.
Southeast Asian and Eurasian languages diverged.
New Guinean peoples diverged from South Asian peoples.
North Asian peoples diverged from Caucasoid peoples.
Perhaps, Homo sapiens Cro-Magnon man is ancestor of Basques of Spain and France and/or South-Africa bushmen.
Amerindian peoples diverged from North East Asian peoples.
Pacific Island peoples diverged from South East Asian peoples.
Culture began.
Culture began.
People with type O blood migrated to North America.
Humans did.
Humans did.
Humans did.
People with type A blood migrated across ice-free land bridge between Siberia and Alaska at Bering Straits and went to all Americas.
After last Ice Age, hybrid wheat evolved in Near East. Hybrid wheat crossed with goat grass to produce Emmer wheat. Emmer wheat crossed with goat grass to produce bread wheat [-8000]. People, such as Natufian culture, helped crosses by harvesting wild wheat with flint sickles.
Southeast Asian peoples migrated east from Taiwan to Philippine islands [-3000], Java [-2000], Solomon Islands [-1600], Samoa [-1200], Marquesas [1], Hawaii [500], Easter Island [500], Pitcairn Island [1000], New Zealand [1000], and Madagascar [500].
Variola virus, orthopoxvirus, causes it. The Ramses V mummy has skin lesions.
Epidemic began.
Mycobacterium leprae bacteria cause it. It affects hand and feet skin and nerves. It is curable. If untreated, it deforms and cripples people.
One quarter of people in Roman Empire died.
Tiber flood [589] preceded plague [590] during time of Pope Gregory the Great.
Bubonic plague killed thousands and went to Russia and Scandinavia.
Bubonic plague began in Himalaya foothills in India [1280 to 1300] and spread along trade routes. It reached China [1333] and Byzantine Empire [1347] {Great Dying}, until it reached most of Europe [1351] {Great Plague} {Black Death}, where it killed one-third of people. Labor shortages led to lower food production, peasant revolts, many land exchanges, and feudalism breakdown, as workers demanded pay.
Last bubonic-plague epidemic began in west Europe.
First polio epidemic began.
Influenza killed 5,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) damages immune system. Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or acquired immunodeficiency is last stage.
Humans came from Java and had stone tools.
Homo erectus migrated out of Africa to Europe and Asia.
Homo erectus migrated to Java, China, south Africa, and England.
Homo sapiens moved out of Africa.
Humans migrated from east Africa to northwest Africa, south Africa, Near East, and southeast Asia.
Humans migrated from southeast Asia to north China, Japan, Pacific Ocean islands, Russia, southwest Asia, Australia, and New Zealand.
Homo sapiens went to south Europe.
Humans migrated from Caucasia in southwest Asia to Europe and east Russia.
Humans lived in limestone caves in north Borneo.
Homo sapiens came to central Europe.
Humans migrated from northwest Asia to Alaska, North America, and then South America.
Homo sapiens entered Alaska.
Homo sapiens entered Siberia.
Began.
Mediterranean islands became populated.
Arctic Circle became populated.
Polynesia and Micronesia became populated.
Semitic people from south Arabia migrated to Eritrea and Ethiopia and traded ivory, spices, and incense.
Faeroe Islands became populated.
Iceland became populated.
Ancestors of Maoris reached New Zealand.
Greenland became populated [986], but Norse people died out by 1500.
New Zealand became populated.
200,000 people had to leave France.
Cherokee received $5 million and moved to Oklahoma.
Sutter's Creek is in east-central California. 300,000 people came.
During international economic depression, several thousand people came. Gold Rush towns were Dawson City and Skagway. Klondike River is in Yukon Territory.
Caroline Islands are northeast of New Guinea.
British helped Kamehameha the Great [1795 to 1810]. Kingdom revised constitution four times, finally limiting king's power to ceremony [1887]. Republic of Hawaii formed [1894].
Steamships became more than half of all ships.
USA colonized it.
England, France, Italy, and Japan controlled it. USA did not join. Germany and Russia joined later. Germany resigned in 1933, as did Japan and Italy later.
League of Nations Assembly ordered Council to appoint committee to codify international law, resulting in three conventions, but nations did not ratify any.
Russia joined.
USA, Canada, and United Kingdom planned World War II strategy [1943]. USA and United Kingdom signed Morgenthau plan, which planned how to occupy Germany and end Ruhr and Saar heavy industries.
United Nations began, with 51 charter members. It now has over 190. It has headquarters in New York City. It has Security Council of six rotating members and five permanent members: United States, Russia, Britain, France, and China. It has General Assembly of all nations, each with one representative. Secretariat is administration. Secretary-Generals have been Trvgye Lie, Dag Hammersköld, U Thant, Kurt Waldheim, Juan Cuellar, Butros Ghali, and Kofi Annan.
Main agencies are International Court of Justice, United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Agricultural Organization (FAO), International Labor Organization (ILO), and World Health Organization (WHO).
NATO began with USA, Canada, Britain, France, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Netherlands, and Italy.
Portugal, Netherlands, and Belgium joined.
Egypt ruled.
Traditionally, a son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba founded it. Hamitic highland people used Amharic language.
Egyptian culture reached Kushites, Hamitic people in south Egypt and north Sudan. They learned Assyrian iron smelting. First, Napata in Sudan was capital, below Fourth Cataract of Nile. Kushites fought Egypt [-770 to -716]. Kushites moved south [-716 to -671]. New center was Meroë, which had iron ore and timber. Nation ended when defeated by Ethiopians [-300].
Phoenician traders from Tyre founded a colony. It became independent from Phoenicia [-600]. It sent ships on expeditions.
Hausa (Hausaland) was a fertile region on lower Niger River and had trade and industry.
Nubians and Kushites took Egypt.
Nation explored West Africa by sea and possibly circumnavigated Africa.
Hamitic tribes live in west and south Ethiopia and north Kenya. Hamitic languages are in Sahara, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Somalia.
Hamitic people were Nubians. Meroë was capital, below Fourth Cataract of Nile. Kushites traded east, south, and west from Meroë, Sudan. It modified Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Nok people formed arrowheads, knives, spearheads, ax, and hoe blades. They wore beads for jewelry. Axes had wooden handles. They had iron mines.
Nation started as city-state under oligarchy on Bay of Tunis and expanded through exploration and trade. Romans destroyed Carthage to end third Punic War [-146].
Nation took Kingdom of Kush.
Aksum was capital in Eritrea and north Ethiopia.
Nation started when Nobatae settled near first cataract of Nile River and founded strong kingdom. It used iron. It became Christian [500 to 600]. It ended when it fell to Muslims.
Ethiopia held Arabian coast. It became Coptic Christian. Arabia at that time had irrigated land, not desert.
Berber kingdom got gold from Ashanti and Senegal and had salt, slaves, and trade with Near East.
Nation became populated.
Bishop Frumentius converted it to Christianity.
Nation probably defeated Kushites at Meroë.
Christianity became majority in Aksum Empire in northeast Africa.
Nation had mines, canals, and wells.
Ethiopia held Arabian coast, but Arabian interior was now desert.
Nation became Christian.
Nation was between Upper Niger and Senegal Rivers in West Africa. It mined gold in valleys. Capital was at Kumbi Saleh. It had Mande speakers.
In northeast Africa, they become Christian.
Nation was Christian and replaced Aksum.
Nation ran from Atlantic Ocean to upper Niger River, got gold from Ashanti and Senegal, had salt, used slaves, and traded with Near East. Arab slavers took slaves [800].
Nation had mines, canals, wells, and gold. Great Zimbabwe had stone buildings from 8th to 17th century.
In Zimbabwe plateau between Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers in south Africa, it mined gold [900]. Gold and copper went to Asia from Sofala on Africa east coast [1200]. It built large stone enclosures {mazimbabwe}. Great Zimbabwe was biggest [1450], had walls and tower, and was religious, political, and trading center.
Nation was in east Nigeria. Igbo-Ukwu had bronze bowls cast by "lost wax" method. It elected ruler, judge, or army commander.
They are native peoples of Ivory Coast and Liberia. Guere live in midwest Ivory Coast. Wobe live nearby. We live in southwest Ivory Coast. Krahn live in Liberia.
Nation was in north Nigeria.
Nation had gold trade.
Nation had gold trade.
It started on trans-Saharan caravan route [1000] and is in north Mali. It has Djingareyber, Sankore, and Sidi Yahya mosques. It belonged to Mali Empire and Songhai Empire [1330 to 1645]. Cheikhou Amadou conquered it [1845]. It became French colony [1896].
Berber Muslims from west Sahara took Morocco, Algeria, and part of Spain. Capital was at Marrakech [1062]. Abu Bakr invaded Ghana and took capital Kumbi [1076]. His cousin Yusuf ibn Tashfin took North Africa and part of Spain [1100], defeating Christians.
Berber Almoravids helped Abbasid Dynasty stop Christians but then took all Spain.
Nation ended Ghana Empire in West Africa.
Islamic kingdom, ruled by dynasty from Maghreb, got gold from Ashanti and Senegal, had salt, had slaves, and traded with Near East.
Berber Muslims, under Ibn Tumart, opposed Almoravids. Abd-al-Mumin, caliph, took Marrakech [1147] and conquered Algeria, Tripoli, and part of Spain [1163]. It lost Spain to Alfonso VIII at Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa [1212].
New dynasty unified Ethiopia.
First Susa and then Keita took it.
Islamic kingdom ruled over Senegal, had gold, defeated Ghana, and traded with Near East. Mandinka lived there.
Nkole, one of Uganda's four ancient kingdoms, is in southwest Uganda, west of Lake Edward. At beginning, Buganda or Ganda kingdom and Bunyoro were also strong. It became part of Uganda [1901].
It is one of Uganda's four ancient kingdoms, is in south Uganda, and includes Kampala. Toro, Ankole, and Bunyoro are other kingdoms.
Nation ended when it fell to Moslem invaders.
Farmers were in north Tanzania, 160 km west of Mt. Kilimanjaro, on steep slopes. They built drystone platforms to level land and terraced hillsides for crop irrigation.
From Gao region of West Africa, it raided Mali Empire.
Sultans built on Africa east coast.
Nation defeated Kingdom of Mali in Senegal.
Portugal explored Congo River.
Kongo king became Christian under Portugal.
Nation traded.
Portuguese explorers captured Sofala on Africa east coast and founded Mozambique.
Portugal started sending slaves to Americas.
Portugal defeated Muslims.
Nation was in west-central Africa, allied with Ottoman Empire, and had guns, military training, and camel troops.
Portugal tried to colonize Angola, causing war.
Nation ended Songhai Empire.
Netherlands started trading post in West Africa.
Nation had council of elders. People had personal gods. Other gods were spirits of important ancestors, earth goddess, thunderbolt god, rain god, and sky god. Chukwu was chief god and was beyond physical world. Ibo used skin pattern painting and played gong, pottery drum, and wood drum.
It was on Madagascar central plateau. Perhaps, they came from Indonesia and Malaysia. Madagascar became French colony [1896]. Maroserana was in southwest, and Sakalava dynasties come from them.
Portugal discovered Benin [1600] and exchanged metal and weapons for slaves and ivory. Benin grew African rice, African yam, oil palm, and kola nut. Oba was king and god and still is a religious figure in some parts of Nigeria. After Benin ambushed British forces, Britain retaliated, ending kingdom [1897].
It expelled foreigners.
Ashanti traded gold, ivory, and slaves in central Ghana. It is matrilineal tribe, largest in Ghana.
Dutch East India Company colonized South Africa.
France colonized French West Africa and Algeria.
Britain colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
France colonized it.
France colonized it.
France colonized it.
France colonized it.
France colonized it.
France colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Spain colonized it.
France colonized it.
France colonized it.
France colonized it.
France colonized it.
France colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Spain colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Spain colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Nation was in southeast Africa.
Britain annexed south Africa and Cape of Good Hope.
Freed USA slaves founded it.
10,000 Dutch settlers {Boers} migrated north and founded a state in Transvaal, north of Vaal River.
Britain took over South Africa from Netherlands. Dutch Boer settlers went north to found Transvaal and Orange Free State. British settlers followed them to get diamonds and gold.
Liberia became independent.
Germany colonized it.
Germany colonized it.
Germany colonized it.
Italy colonized it.
Germany colonized it.
Britain warred with Zulu people.
People discovered gold in Rand River in Transvaal and diamonds in Orange River.
Germany colonized it.
Italy colonized it.
Ethiopia defeated Italy invasion.
Nation became independent of Italy.
Portugal colonized it.
Belgium colonized it and claimed nearby regions.
Nation was in south Africa.
Portugal colonized it.
Portugal colonized it.
Nation was in south Africa.
Nation became independent of France.
Nation became independent of Portugal.
Nation became independent of Belgium.
Nation became independent of Italy after war.
Nation became independent of France.
Nation stayed independent.
Nation became British Commonwealth. England still held central and south Africa.
Allies liberated Ethiopia from Italy.
Revolt in Algeria began against France. 1,000,000 French people lived in Algeria. Algeria became independent [1962].
Nation became independent of France, as France left.
Nation became independent of France, as France left.
Nation became independent of Britain.
Spain left.
Nation became independent of Belgium. Katanga province, where minerals are, revolted.
Nation withdrew from British Commonwealth and controlled Southwest Africa.
It began race segregation {apartheid, South Africa}.
Nation became independent of Britain.
Nation became independent of Portugal.
Nation became Communist when Marxists deposed Haile Selassie.
Nation became independent of Portugal.
Rhodesia became independent of Britain and renamed itself.
Islamic party took over Sudan.
Islamic party won election, but army took over.
Neolithic culture built Cuicuilco Pyramid near Mexico City -2000. Wood frame houses used wattle and daub. Civilization used adobe bricks and formed coiled pottery. Civilization had fertility figures.
It built gravel platforms.
It was at El Arbolillo, Tlatilco, and Zacatenco in Valley of Mexico. Middle Preclassic [-900 to -500] was at same places.
Planned cities were at San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. Large earth pyramids were for ceremonies. They used slash-and-burn farming. They used decimal system for numbers and had calendar. The feathered serpent and were-jaguar were gods. They had burial rites. Art works were Wrestler sculpture, large stone heads, and jade carvings.
Nation was on Gulf of Mexico. Ceremonial centers had public buildings, houses, and shops. It had salt, fishers, farmers, traders, and skilled artists.
It is in Veracruz.
Cuicuilco was west of San Lorenzo.
Niche or Tajin pyramid has 365 steps. Tatonac civilization used cocoa, tropical fruits, woven and dyed cotton, and picture writing. Civilization has same gods as Aztecs but with different names. Papantla dancers are from there.
Chavin de Huantar in highlands was ceremonial center. It had woven cloth, organized religion, and commerce.
Nation was on Peru north coast.
Nation reached to El Salvador by -800. La Venta was main city. It used hieroglyphs. It religion influenced later Zapotecs.
Nation was in south Mexico.
Stone temple with U shape has rooms connected by stairs or ramps. Central room has a large stone human body, with cat face, called Lanzon or Smiling God. It was in Peruvian Andes.
It was at El Arbolillo, Tlatilco, and Zacatenco in Valley of Mexico. Early Preclassic [-1350 to -900] was at same places.
Oaxaca was in southeast Mexico.
It has Teotihuacan, La Venta, and Middle Tres Zapotes.
Nation grew corn, beans, gourds, and sunflowers. It built large earthen mounds as communal graves that contained copper bracelets, carved stone tablets, and tobacco pipes.
Nation cultivated corn, beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, and yucca. It had embroidery and woven cloth, with more than 100 colors. It had mummification and burial rituals.
Nation ended in southeast Mexico when replaced by Toltecs.
Nation was in northwest Mexico.
Nation was on Peru north coast.
Monte Albán is in Oaxaca State in southeast Mexico.
Nation was in Valley of Mexico.
The later burial mound period began on upper Mississippi River. It used Adena customs, buried dead, grew corn, and had organized government with hereditary rulers.
Nation sacrificed prisoners and built pyramids. It grew corn, beans, and chili peppers.
Nation had coiled pottery, used raw copper, smoked tobacco, put buildings on serpent shaped mounds, and had castes.
On high plateau in Peru south coast, it wove tapestries, aligned stones with stars, and carved stone animal figures [-200]. It carved lines and patterns in desert [50]. Tiahuanaco defeated it.
Nation spread to Xochicalco. Pyramids of Sun and Moon were to the chief god Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent. It built Temple of Wind and Rain and Street of the Dead. Rain god was Chalchiuhtlcue.
Art emphasized the rain god, a plumed serpent.
Nation began.
On Peru north coast, it had textiles, loincloths, tunics, and bronze war axes on thongs.
El Mirador in north Guatemala was at height.
Population was more than 40,000 people.
Nation settled in Altiplano tableland, 4000 meters high, and near Lake Titicaca. Art used angles and squares on pottery, textiles, and stones, in epigonal style.
Nation faded into Old Mayan Empire and Toltecs. Mitla was religious center near Monte Alba. Jaguar was an Olmec god before and was chief Zapotec god.
Nation was on upper Mississippi River.
Nation was on Peru coast. It had canals for irrigation and guano for fertilizer. It built pyramid-like structures {huaca}. Largest was Huaca del Sol, at Sipan on coast. They used clay molds.
Houses were half underground, with stone and mud roofs. It had painted pottery, especially on Mimbres River in New Mexico.
Oaxaca was at greatest extent.
Nation had more than 1,000,000 people.
Nation was near Lake Titicaca.
Hohokam culture expanded to Snaketown, Casa Grande, Red Mountain, and Pueblo de los Muertos [550 to 900].
Hohokam culture expanded to Snaketown, Casa Grande, Red Mountain, and Pueblo de los Muertos [550 to 900].
Temple towns had courtyards and stelae.
Over 100,000 people lived on Mexico central plateau. It had painted walls, and temples had gold. It grew corn and beans.
It was at Copan and traded with Teotihuacan.
Theocracy confederated [250] Peten, Tikal, Copan, Uaxactun, Quirigua, Bonampak, Palenque, Comacalco, and Yaxchilan. 2,000,000 Mayans are alive today. Bonampak had murals.
Picture writing used syllabary of 700 symbols on bark paper. Mayans used zero, decimal numbering, sacred calendar, solar calendar, time measurement, and astronomical predictions.
Wood frame houses had cane walls, clay plaster, and thatched roofs. Special architecture style {Chenes} {well style} was in lowlands. Classic Mayan buildings used another style {Puuc} {hill style}. Mayans built massive pyramids.
Mayans grew maize and traded with Kaminaljuya and Teotihuacan in rubber, cocoa, vanilla, parrots, macaws, and quetzal bird feathers.
Kukulcan was god of Venus as Evening Star and later became the plumed serpent and Quetzalcoatl. Choc was rain god. Kinich Ahau was sun god.
Jaguar Claw I or Chak Toh Ich'ak I, ninth ruler, founded dynasty [360 to 378]. Tikal is in El Peten.
Nation invaded neighbors.
Capital was Monte Alban, in south Mexico.
Nation built burial mounds, formed pottery, used iron weapons, and was in upper Mississippi River.
Nation started in Middle Woodland Period [500 to 600] and flourished by 900.
It was Zapotec civilization capital in Oaxaca. It was next-to-last stage.
Nation is near Oaxaca. Toltecs influenced it.
Nation started when Toltecs came from north and took Teotihuacan. Teotihuacan, Tollan or Tula, and Cholula were cities. Tula had giant Atlantes sculptures. Toltec civilization had pyramids, irrigation systems, forced labor, and slaves. It depended on Olmec culture. It had astronomy, used maguey plant juice, and had butterfly emblems. It had human sacrifice and sun worship. Quetzalcoatl was chief god. Chac Mool was divine messenger between man and sun god, and his statue was recumbent figure with offering bowl on stomach.
Teotihuacan was at height. It built Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, to the chief god Quetzalcoatl, the plumed serpent.
Nation continued in Late Woodland Period.
More than 100,000 people lived in Huari City [800 to 900].
It was Pre-Inca Civilization capital and is south of Lake Titicaca in Andes. It has Gateway of the Sun archway, with Inca sun god Viracocha.
Nation was trade center.
It was Zapotec civilization capital in Oaxaca. Fourth Monte Alban was last stage.
Nation built stone ceremonial platforms.
Teotihuacan burned, and all people left.
Nation built flat-topped mounds as platforms for temples.
Nation ended by raids from Amazon region, war with Huari, and pestilence.
Teotihuacan burned.
Nation was in east Arizona and built houses above ground.
Pueblos had interconnecting mud-brick rooms in layers. Cliff dwellings were at Mesa Verde, Chaco Canyon, and Canyon de Chelly. Corn and other crops grew on cliff tops, using irrigation. It formed pottery and turquoise jewelry. It had men's clubhouses and plazas. It used bow and arrow, basket weaving, and flutes. It grew beans and had dogs. Anasazi means "ancient ones". By 1400, it became Hopi, Zuni, and Rio Grande Indians.
The first military state king was Quetzalcoatl I, who died at Tollan or Place of Reeds [790]. Tollen or Tula (Hidalgo), near Mexico City, was capital and had Temple of Mother Earth. Cholula was ritual center in central Mexico and has world's largest pyramid.
The god Tezcatlipoka took Earth out of primeval waters. Sun god was patron of warriors. Quetzalcoatl was spirit of the planet Venus and god of winds, the breath of life. Ometecuhtli was male and female creative powers, was above gods, had fire symbol, and had no temples, because it was not in the material world.
Tikal had 40,000 people.
Teotihuacan, Maya, and other cultures gathered.
Nation was in south Arizona in Gila River valley. Hohokam means "those who have vanished". It invented etching with acid, and it etched shells from American west coast.
Mayan civilization abandoned cities in south Mexico lowlands and ended.
Teotihuacan had 75,000 to 125,000 people at empire height.
Nation faded.
Nation started after Toltecs left. It built Tenayuca pyramid.
Nation was in northeast Mexico, influenced Toltecs and Mexicans, and carved life-size statues.
Toltecs ended Mayan civilization in north Mexico.
Tollan or Tula (Hidalgo) became capital.
Nation built circular rooms with wall benches.
Nation built platform mounds.
Nation built layered burial mounds, built wood structures for solstices and equinoxes, used copper, had central organization, had stratified society, and was near St. Louis.
Nation had paved streets, grew cotton and cocoa, and traded on Colombia north coast.
Nation was at Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon.
Nation had Pueblo culture.
The ninth high chief, Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, ruled area as wide as later Aztec Empire.
Nation ended when nobles attacked Tollan and ninth chief's son, and civil war followed.
Nation ended when Toltecs conquered it. 100,000 people lived nearby.
Nation began when Itza clan of Toltecs conquered Mayans and built at Chichen. Pyramid was for Kukulean, Toltec leader. Cities were Mayapan, Uxmal, Chichen Itza, Labna, Kabah, Tulum, and Sayil.
Nation ended when beaten by Niune culture from south.
Mixtecs, under Eight Deer Ocelot Claw of Tilantongo, took Lycoba or Mitla from Zapotecs.
Nation lived in caves and mesas, for protection against buffalo-hunting tribes, during droughts in southwest USA.
Nation started when Chief Naymlap landed using balsa rafts [1000]. Chan Chan, near Trujillo, was capital. Paramonga, north of Lima, was capital. It had metal work, roads, irrigation, large stepped pyramids, and stepped mud-brick fortresses. It was on Peru north coast.
The best young man became chief and had to jump into lake covered with gold dust, creating legend of El Dorado. They spoke Chibcha language.
Nation began as tribe. Machu Picchu was first capital. Leader title was Sapa Inca or Only Inca. The creator god Viracocha had only one temple, because he was in all hearts and minds, as leader.
Kukulkán founded it [1007]. It was leading city after Chichén Itzá faded. It is in Yucatán peninsula.
Chimor culture was on Peru northwest coast. Perhaps, it descended from earlier Moche people. It had irrigated farmland, but rain ruined the fields. Chimu conquered neighbors and built roads.
Third generation Inca took Apurimac River valley. Chanca confederation killed Vahuarhuaccac, the leader. After Vahuarhuaccac, nobles selected Viracocha to be king. He defeated Chanca and unified conquered lands.
He built food and clothing storehouses for use by army. He built storehouses for sun god, in case of catastrophe. One-third of production went to sun god, one-third to army and state, and one-third was for farmer.
Towns had different clothes, had sundials, and had uncultivated areas to breed llamas and keep wild quanaco. Slopes had terraces for growing pumpkin, beans, and maize. Irrigation diverted mountain streams.
They conscripted soldiers for up to five years. Army constructed buildings and carried supplies. Only Inca were commanders.
First statues were on previously built platforms.
Nation ended.
From north desert, it took Toltec capital at Tula.
Nation lost of Chichen Itza.
Nation ended.
Cuzco became capital.
Apartment blocks and circular kivas were at Cliff Canyon and Fewkes Canyon.
Nation ended in central Mexico when beaten by Aztecs.
Aztecs settled on two marshy islands in south Lake Texoco in Valley of Mexico [1200 to 1300]. They floated large baskets of earth into marshland to make raised fields {chinampas} and planted trees there. They built Tenochtitlan on an island [1320 to 1330], with four quarters, one for each family group. First ruler was Tenoch [1330 to 1370]. Tenochitlan slowly grew to 250,000 people.
Nation began when Mayans revolted from Toltecs. Cities were Mayapan, Chichen, and Uxmal. It had merchants and long dugout canoes.
Nation ended when Tepaneca defeated it.
It built large stone statues. One platform was 45 meters wide and had fifteen statues. It built village of oval stone houses.
Aztecs from north replaced Toltec civilization. Tenochtitlan was capital, near Mexico City, on a now dry island in Lake Texcoco. Water supply was at Chapultepec, five miles away.
On the migration, main priest was Tenoch. They were to settle where they saw an eagle on a cactus eating a serpent. Eagle was symbol of Huitzilopochtli, the war god.
Uetlatoani or Great Speaker was a priest-astrologer, led warriors, spoke for all, and set all laws. Tlaloc Tlamacazqui or High Priest of Rains led ceremonies and consulted war god's oracle. Warrior class had rituals and human sacrifice. They removed hearts from living people and burned them. A Supreme Justice led courts. A Lord of the Market Place controlled commerce.
Aztecs had pictographs, calendar, caste system, universal education, cotton, and obsidian but no iron.
Aztecs built temple to the Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli at Tenochtitlan [1455].
In 1473, Tenochtitlan expanded to include Tlateloco.
It was in Oaxaca Valley.
The 6th chief allied with two other Lake Texcoco cities.
Nation left northern dwellings and built large towns.
Triple Alliance was Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan.
Moctocuzomatzia Illhuicamina I defeated other lake cities.
Nation was on ridge above Urubamba River.
Chief Scyri fought Inca.
Nation took Paramonga, and Chimu surrendered. Topa Inca Yupanqui ruled after conquest of Chimu. He tried to subdue Calchaqui in Chile and sailed out to Taumotu or Marquessas Islands. Empire came to include parts of Chile, Bolivia, and Ecuador. It had nobles, provincial governors, and officials. It controlled town building, natural resources, art, and pottery.
Tizoc led and built pyramid [1489].
Huyna Capac or Huayna Capac defeated Cara, codified laws, and led empire at greatest extent. Cuzco was capital. Inca Empire went from north Ecuador to south Chile and was 3000 km long and 800 km wide with three north-south roads.
Incas called empire Tahuantinsuyu (Place of the Four Directions or center of Earth).
It built roads with suspension bridges and rest houses for runners. It used only barter.
People had to stay in their villages. Ten households were unit. The state owned everything except houses and personal items and was responsible for personal welfare. Taxes were labor, and state required labor in mines or on roads.
Rope {quipu} color was for subject, rope knots were for numerals, and rope positions were for decimal positions.
Inca had storehouses, irrigation, gold mines, silver mines, and massive structures in mountains. They had llamas, wild quanaco, pumpkin, beans, and maize. They had weaving, fertilizer, bronze hoes, cut stone with no mortar, surgery, pottery wheel for rulers only, and lathe for rulers only.
Nation spread to Isthmus of Tehuantepec, invaded central Mexico, and contacted Aztecs.
Atahuallpa, son of the Cara chief's daughter, organized Cara and imprisoned Inca leader Huascar, Huayna Capac's son.
Slaves from Africa worked in Brazil. Few slaves were in Central America and South America.
Slaves from Africa worked on sugar plantations and in Spanish households in Caribbean Sea islands.
Spanish colony started.
Spain under Cortes conquered Aztec Empire under Moctezuma II.
Moctezuma II or Montezuma was last emperor and lost to Spain under Cortes. 1,000,000 people were in Tenochtitlan [1520].
Spanish under Pizarro landed and captured Atahuallpa of Cara in trap at Cajamarca, to start end of Inca Empire.
Portugal settled it [1532]. Island is on south São Paulo coast, beside Santos.
Viceroy of Spain began rule of Mexico. Two notable viceroys were Zumarraga and Luis de Valasco.
Spain explored it.
Nation ended when conquered by Pizarro of Spain.
Spain settled St. Augustine.
Sir Walter Raleigh started it, but it died out.
John Smith was army captain.
Nation started when the ship Mayflower landed on Plymouth Rock. William Bradford was first governor. John Alden married Priscilla Mullens, and Miles Standish loved her, too.
Traders imported slaves for tobacco plantations in Virginia. Later, they imported slaves for cotton and rice plantations in Carolinas. Slave traders took 100,000 slaves a year from Africa.
Dutch West Indies Company founded New Netherlands.
Virginia became colony of Britain.
Dutch West Indies Company of Holland purchased New Amsterdam (New York City) from American natives for $24 in beads.
Nation was colony of England. Later, John Winthrop, Cotton Mather, and Increase Mather lead theocracy. Later, Salem had witch trials.
Maryland was under the Calverts as English colony.
Plymouth Colony settled Connecticut and built trading posts.
Church attendance became compulsory. All paid tax for ministers.
Roger Williams founded Providence as separate entity from Massachusetts Bay Colony. All people are equal before the law, and people can change government at any time.
People had religious freedom. Arbitration settled disputes.
John Winthrop, Cotton Mather, and Increase Mather led theocracy.
Cambridge Platform maintained Puritan control of Massachusetts Bay Colony and prohibited religious freedom.
Nation trapped animals for furs.
Virginia settlers came to North Carolina.
Holland left northeast Brazil.
England regained control of Massachusetts Bay Colony and ended many Puritan restrictions.
Connecticut became chartered colony of England.
Rhode Island Colony charter granted religious freedom. Hutchinson and Puritan exiles fled to Rhode Island from Massachusetts.
Britain took New York City from Peter Stuyvesant of Dutch West Indies Company.
Settlers came to Charleston, South Carolina.
William Penn started colony for Quakers and treated American natives with respect.
Pennsylvania added Delaware.
England put New England under one governor. It revoked Massachusetts Bay Colony charter.
Massachusetts got new charter from England, with many regulations, and again became separate from rest of New England. Only property owners voted.
Salem witch trials tried women that had supposedly gotten magic powers from devil.
400,000 Europeans were in colonies. 5000 people were in French Canada.
Nation began when Hiawatha united six main American Indian tribes in northeast USA. Iroquois lived in lodges or wigwams and had villages with palisades on river bluffs. They had organized hunting and fishing and used traps. They used maize, apple orchards, and sugar maple syrup. They tanned leather by smoking shaved skin, rubbing it with ash, lime, and fat and then scraping and smoking it again. They kept record of 400 years of history.
Wampum was tubular beads threaded on belts, to commemorate events. Keepers of the Wampum recited stories.
Iroquois Indians shaved hair into a broad line {Mohawk haircut}.
Oglethorpe from England settled at Savannah.
Law passed by English Parliament imposed duties on English imports in American colonies.
Law passed by English Parliament gave tea monopoly to East India Company in American colonies.
Britain exiled French from Nova Scotia, Canada. Some French went to Louisiana and became Cajuns.
Stamp Act passed by English Parliament required stamp and tax on many items in American colonies. Virginia House of Burgesses and Stamp Act Congress in Massachusetts condemned act as taxation without representation. Later, Parliament repealed Stamp Act as unenforceable.
Quebec Act passed by English Parliament reduced freedom in Massachusetts.
Wanting to stay under the English king, United Empire Loyalists went from USA to Canada during American Revolution.
Washington and USA army wintered at Valley Forge.
Chateau Clique ruled south Canada.
Family Compact ruled north Canada.
Spanish America under Simon Bolivar and San Martin declared independence from Spain.
Slave importation stopped.
Nation became independent but stayed confederated with Spain until 1853.
Nation became independent.
Nation became independent of Spain.
USA bought it from Spain.
Mexico became independent of Spain.
Nation became independent of Spain.
Nation became independent empire, free from Portugal [1822]. Nation became republic in 1889.
Nation had British, Dutch, and French colonies.
British Honduras, Jamaica, Trinidad, and West Indies belonged to Britain.
Nation became independent of Spain.
It included Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala and ended in civil war.
Simon Bolivar held meeting to unite Spanish America but it failed.
Nation became independent of Spain.
Nation became independent of Spain.
Nation became independent of Spain.
Nation became independent of Spain [1831] and received name later [1861].
Nation became independent of Spain.
Nation became independent of Spain.
Nation became independent of Spain.
Nation became independent of Spain [1838] and obtained Mosquito Coast [1860].
Reform Party removed Family Compact in north Canada and Chateau Clique in south Canada.
Quebec Conference [1864] led to confederation [1867].
English law formed Dominion of Canada. Provinces were Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Yukon Territory, and Northwest Territory. Canada had 3,000,000 people.
Nation acquired Rupert's Land from Britain's Hudson Bay Company.
Manitoba province joined Canada.
British Columbia province joined Canada.
Prince Edward Island province joined Canada.
It showcased nation for Europeans.
It was labor riot.
Slavery ended.
It established Pan-American Union, originated Pan-American railway, and encouraged arbitration treaties.
First Pan-American Conference started it [1890], and it reorganized as Organization of American States [1948].
A labor strike against railroad companies was violent. The lawyer Clarence Darrow defended union leader Eugene Debs.
Act, by Julio Roca of Argentina, allowed no foreign intervention in South America.
Nation became independent of Spain.
Saskatchewan and Alberta provinces joined Canada.
USA built and operated canal and controlled region.
Nation nationalized all resources.
Calvin Coolidge put down police strike using militia.
After good years [1925 to 1928], New York stock market crashed [1929]. In 1930 and 1931, banks recalled loans, and investment stopped.
Nation built dams and electric power plants.
Newfoundland province joined Canada.
USA helped suppress communist takeover.
Nation became independent of Netherlands.
USA ended dictatorship.
Military junta ruled after coup.
Russia withdrew missiles from Cuba after confrontation with USA at United Nations.
It featured the "I Have a Dream" speech by Martin Luther King, Jr.
It was at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. African Union replaced it [2002].
USA helped military government.
Neolithic culture was near Ravi River in south Punjab in northwest India, 400 miles up Indus River from Mohenjo-Daro. It formed terracotta, used pictographs, herded, and grew wheat, barley, legumes, and sesame.
Neolithic culture was 400 miles south of Mohenjo-Daro and had docks and canals.
Neolithic culture probably started when Dravidians entered Indus River valley. Mohenjo-Daro had 30,000 people in four square miles, with sewers, irrigation from river, and wide streets in grid. It rained in summer but not winter.
Civilization had baked, not just sun-dried, brick houses, granaries, and public baths but no temples or palaces. It used potter's wheels and had cotton spinning and weaving. It used pictograph writing on seals. Civilization influenced Sind, Punjab, and Gujurat.
Shiva was god of creation. His consort was Parvathi.
Neolithic culture had textiles, boats, ox carts, cubic weights, and religious symbols. Early Indus script was on square clay seals or tags {bullae}. To make glazed pottery, steatite heated in kilns turned into cristobalite, enstatite, and alumina. Ground quartz, ash, and copper-oxide or azurite coating can fuse to surface to make faience.
Neolithic culture had 30,000 to 80,000 people on 150 hectares, with well water, sewage system, walled streets, and multistory houses. It had no army. It traded with Afghanistan and Central Asia.
Religion had Shiva-like god, mother-goddess, Nandi-like bull figure, and unicorn.
Indus script had 400 symbols.
Soapstone {steatite} inscriptions used stone drills of hard quartz, sillimanite, mullite from kilns, hematite, and titanium oxide. Glass beads began [-1700].
Civilization ended when Ghaggar-Hakra River (Saraswati River) shifted course and dried out.
Neolithic culture had glass bottles and iron items.
Farmers from Pakistan settled by river. Writing began. City houses were in grid. Major towns among 1500 towns were Mohenjo Daro (Mound of the Dead), Harappa, Rakhigarhi, Dholavira, Kot Diji, Ganweriwala, Chanhu Daro, Shahr-i-Sokhta, and Lothal. They did not make large stone monuments but had local marketplaces and religious festivals {sang, festival}. They did not bury the dead with luxury goods. The language is undeciphered. Earthquakes and floods weakened it [-1700]. Later, Kassite people from northwest invaded [-1500], and cities decayed.
Anyang was capital. Panlung, Chengchow, Honan, Hupeh, and Shantung were fortified cities.
King owned all land, and leading clans were king's vassals. It had professional soldiers, chariots, coins, slaves, burials, sacrifices, rituals, astronomy, and scribes.
Writing calligraphy used 5000 pictograph characters, each representing one syllable.
Ancestor worship began. Appointed people read oracles {shih}, turtle shells or bones inscribed with writing and then cracked by heated pins.
Art had cast bronze statues and ceramics. They believed that the god of heaven anointed the king.
Perhaps, Shang and Olmec cultures met, because icons and architecture are similar.
Nation ended when river dried up or shifted by erosion or climate change.
Nation used bronze for sacred vessels, chariots, and weapons. It ended when Zhou attacked [-1045].
Zhou kings replaced Shang. By tradition, Zhou period was happy period. They had to move capital [-771]. States along Yellow River were T'si, Ts'in, and Ch'u. Wang Ch'eng was capital. It built earth-walled cities of nine square kilometers.
Nation ended when defeated by Chou or Zhou tribe from northwest China.
It had rice in Kyushu.
It is period in Vedic Sanskrit period or Vedic Age. Periods are Vedic period, Grhya period, and Puranic period. Grhya period has Grhya Sutras.
Capital moved east to near Luoyang in Honan or Hunan province.
Regional kings declared independence from Zhou.
Kingdoms warred, and nobility weakened, resulting in more literacy and freedom of thought. Warring States Period followed.
Seven kingdoms fought.
Dong Son iron culture lived in north center along Red River. It had bronze drums.
Cham culture lived in south center near Danang between Thua Thien and Dong Nai Rivers, used agate and jasper, and had Hindu influences.
Oc Eo culture was in south.
Chandragupta defeated Nanda Dynasty of Magadha Kingdom and forced remains of Alexander the Great's army out of India and Afghanistan. He subjugated Punjab and Kabul Valley. His minister was Canakya Kautilya. His capital was Pataliputra, Patna, or Patma. Indo-European Aryan arts flourished.
Merchants and settlers from Asia reached of Kyrushu Island in west Japan and spread to near Tokyo. It brought bronze and iron metal tools, weapons, and vessels.
Hung Vuong kings ruled north of Giang River to current China-Vietnam border.
Greek soldiers set up kingdom.
It existed from end of Chou dynasty until Ch'in dynasty unified China.
An Duong Vuong founded it, in north center. It built Co Loa citadel. It ended when Nan Yue under emperor Zhao Juo defeated it.
China ruled Vietnam.
Brhadratha ended dynasty by assassination and started Sunya Dynasty.
Emperor Zhao Juo took Au Lac. It ended when Han dynasty of China conquered.
Buddhist tribe of Yueh-Chi, who had left China because Huns defeated Sunyas, entered India from China and Central Asia and conquered down to Benares, India. Gandhara School of art flourished. Jaina and Buddhist art was at Mathura. Nation revived [78 to 123].
Bactrians, descendants of Alexander the Great's army, entered Indus River valley. Parthians and Scythians followed later.
City-states and empires began.
Fu Nan culture was in south in Mekong Delta and had Hindu and Buddhist influences.
Nation defeated Thai Kingdom in Mekong River Valley. Annam became vassals, and Hsing-Nu (Huns) moved north of Gobi Desert. Capital moved eastward from Chang'an to Luoyang. Guan Yu and two other Peach Garden Comrades tried to save dynasty [200]. It used paper, stern rudder for ships, breast harness for horses for pulling loads, crossbow with bronze lock, colored glazes, magnetic compass for temple construction, maps with grids, decimal calipers, and earthquake recorders. Dynasty ended after civil war.
Nation rebelled against Han dynasty.
Nation was Hindu and was near Tanjore in south India.
Nation was one of the Three Kingdoms. Hua Tuo was legendary doctor.
It came after Han Dynasty and had Wei [220 to 265], Shu [221 to 263], and Wu [222 to 280] kingdoms. It ended when Wei dynasty began. It is part of Six Dynasties period.
Nation was one of the Three Kingdoms.
Nation was one of the Three Kingdoms.
Nation began after the three Wei, Shu, and Wu kingdoms fell. Buddhism increased.
They started at end of Jin Dynasty. Liu Yuan the Hun began Han kingdom [304] in north China. Five Barbarian Peoples were Di, Jie, Qiang, Xianbei, and Xiongnu and were in north China.
Nation ended in anarchy.
It was one of Six Dynasties and was the first Southern Dynasty.
It unified north China [440]. Xiaowen moved capital from Pingcheng or Shanxi to Luoyang [494]. It lost to Yang Chien, who founded Sui dynasty.
Northern Dynasties and Southern Dynasties [420 to 589] came after Sixteen Kingdoms and before Sui Dynasty.
It was one of Southern Dynasties.
It was one of Six Dynasties then one of Southern Dynasties. Hsiao Yen of Southern Ch'i dynasty [464 to 549] took Nanking [501] started Liang Dynasty [502].
Wu, Xiao Yan, Shuda, or Lian'er founded Liang Dynasty of Southern Dynasties. Jianwen and Yuzhang were later emperors.
Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi, and Northern Zhou were part of Northern Dynasty [386 to 581]. Toba Wei or Northern Wei dynasty [386 to 534] split into Eastern Wei [534 to 550] and Western Wei.
Yuwen Tai killed Northern Wei emperor, but then Northern Zhou took throne.
Buddhist monks from China led Japanese court to adopt Buddhism as official religion. Slavery ended, universities started, and civil service began.
Wen Hsuan Ti founded it. Capital was Yeh.
Caluykas flourished.
Nation fought Siamese and other neighbor kingdoms. Angkor Thom was capital. Angkor Wat was temple, influenced by Hinduism. Khmer Empire capital had two million people when it fell to attackers.
It unified north China but lost to Yang Chien, who founded Sui dynasty.
It was one of Six Dynasties and then Southern Dynasties, until Sui dynasty defeated it [589].
Hinduism and Buddhism flourished.
Nation became independent kingdom.
Capital was at Ch'ang-an, in Shensi province in west China, with 2,000,000 people. Canton and Peking also had 2,000,000 people. Taitsung was main city. Korea was subject to China.
Tang dynasty revived Confucianism and reformed civil service. China banned all religions except Confucianism in 9th century, destroyed all monasteries, and taxed monks and nuns.
Small land available for peasants and more landless peasants caused peasant rebellions and military rebellions.
Paper money and printing began.
Pottery glazes had several colors. Poetry flowered. Imperial Academy of Letters started at Ch'ang-an [754].
Tang court became Buddhist.
Taika political and social reforms made government like that of China.
Rajputs, part of warrior caste, ruled northwest India.
It defeated a rebellion.
Nation had increased independence from China.
Settlers from Tibet came to Burma.
Nation started to decay.
Warrior-class swordsmen and mounted archers {samurai}| helped local governments. However, they began to control provinces [1000]. Minamoto and Taira were the most-powerful samurai families. Minamoto Yoritomo became shogun [1192].
Cholas were a southeast-India Hindu people. They conquered south India, Sri Lanka, and up to Ganges River. They used coins, had guilds, and allowed village assemblies.
It started after Tang dynasty. Min was one kingdom. Sung dynasty ruled after.
Nation was one of the Ten Kingdoms.
The general Taizu became first Sung emperor. Dynasty extended from Great Wall to Hainan and traded with India and Persia along improved roads. Canton and Fuchow ports started. Dynasty had printing from wood blocks and started printing from movable type. It used boat stern posts, had gunpowder, had water-driven spinning machines, and produced iron. New rice type, allowing two crops a year, grew in hills after watering in spring.
Nation ended when Mongols overthrew it. Southern Sung Dynasty controlled south China.
Nation was in south China.
Nation ended.
Nation began when Minamoto Yorimoto of Minamoto clan defeated Tiara clan. He was first shogun and ruled from army camp {bakufu}. Nobles ruled and emperor had little central authority. Samurai warriors became important. Offices became hereditary.
Thailand expelled native Khmers from Indochina.
Nation started when Jenghiz Khan or Genghis Khan, Mongol-confederacy leader, conquered Mongolia. He took most of north China [1215]. Population was 120,000,000 people in 1200, but 30,000,000 died in the conquest. He took Turkestan, Transoxania, Persia, Afghanistan, and southeast Europe [1224]. Karakorum was first capital. Cambulac was later capital. It had Buddhism, learning, art, and coal burning.
Authorities did not allow Chinese to marry Mongols, learn Mongol language, or have weapons.
Mongols were from Mongolia and Manchuria. Mongols had sky god.
Nation began when Ghorids appointed Turkish slave, Qutb al-Din Aybak, after Turks conquered down to Ganges River. Slave Kings ruled until 1287.
Mongols, from central Asia, invaded China.
Mongols took Beijing.
Mongol invasions of Iran began.
Mongols defeated Persia Kharazm-shahs, who were under Sultan Mohammad's protection, and ruled from Oxus River to Euphrates River.
Mongols defeated Chin in north China.
Batu Khan took Kiev in Russia [1236] and then Moravia, Hungary, and Poland [1255].
Mongols took Hungary.
Nation overran Tibet.
Nation took Korea from China.
Nation defeated Seljuk Turks and Abassid caliphs at Baghdad, killing last Abassid caliph and establishing Empire of the Il-Khans.
Nation started when Batu Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson, and Tatars took Russia, Poland, and Hungary. Sarai was capital, near Volvograd. Sultaniyeh was in Persia [1304]. It was tributary to Mongols.
Kublai Khan or Kubilai Khan defeated Sung Dynasty of China and took south China but not southeast Asia, though he occupied it temporarily. He attacked Japan twice [1274] [1281], but typhoons {kamikaze} wrecked each of his fleets in Japanese bays. He attacked Indonesia [1292].
Nation helped Batu Khan's brother Kublai Khan overthrow Sung Dynasty in south China.
Nation started when Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor, defeated Southern Sung Dynasty. It had postal system, roads, canals, and trade. Civil service exams stopped until 1315.
Kublai Khan took Burma.
Oljeitu Khan ruled.
Nation became Moslem.
Tughlak started Tughlakid rule. Tamerlane defeated Tughlakids [1398].
Five Hindu brothers founded nation. Oldest was Harihara I. Vijayanagar was capital.
Nation was in south, grew to lowlands, and became Siam.
Nation ended when member of Red Turbans secret society, Chu Yan-chang, took Nanking [1356] and Peking [1368]. Mongols preceded Ming Dynasty.
Nation started with Chu Yuanchang, former Buddhist monk, who defeated Mongols [1368]. It ruled from Korea to Burma and discouraged trade and interactions with foreigners. It fired porcelain. 160,000,000 people were in China.
Nation ended when beaten by Timurids in south China.
War with Grand Duke of Moscow weakened it.
Admiral Cheng Ho sailed to other lands.
Nation split into Khanates of Astrakhan, Kazan, Crimea, and Sibir or Tartary or Siberia.
Capital moved from Nanjing to Beijing.
Nation ended Khmer Empire in southeast Asia and sacked Angkor Wat [1431].
Eunuchs lost political fight to nobles. Boats were 100 meters long. However, it then forbid long voyages, shipbuilding, and ships.
It exported Ming porcelain.
Nation rebuilt Great Wall.
European colonies were at Macao and Canton.
Uzbeks defeated Timurids.
Ships did not go out of coastal areas, and people did not travel abroad.
Nation ended when Mogul Dynasty took over Delhi Sultanate.
Don Jorge de Meneses of Portugal discovered it.
Nation started when Baber or Babar, Moslem descended from Timur, took north India from Afghanistan.
Humayun, Baber's son, fled but returned [1555].
Portugal discovered Japan and brought guns.
Mongols attacked Peking.
Portugal settled at Macao.
China expelled Japan from Korea.
Nation split into small kingdoms.
Nation defeated invasions from Japan.
As Spanish Empire waned, Catholic priests gained power.
Shah Jehan or Shah Jahan took south India, built Taj Mahal, and expanded Agra and Delhi. He failed to push Persians out of Kandahar.
Dutch explored it.
Dutch East India Company defeated Britain and controlled Indonesia.
It annexed Korea.
It took Inner Mongolia.
British colonies started at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta. French colonies were at Pondicherry and Chandernagore. Ceylon and East Indies were Dutch.
Portugal lost Indonesia to rebellions as Dutch East India Company helped push Portugal out of Indonesia.
Dynasty ended when Manchu peoples started Ch'ing Dynasty.
North China (Manchuria) Manchu people took Shensi province [1644], Fukien province [1646], and Miao [1650].
Aurungzebe or Aurangzeb ruled and tried to ban Hinduism.
K'ang-hsi ruled. He took Annam [1666], Szechuan [1678], Yunnan [1681], Formosa [1683], Mongolia [1696], Outer Mongolia [1697], Tibet [1720], and Sinkiang [1724]. Enameling began.
Maharattas became independent, under Shivagi, and allied with sultans of Deccan against Moguls.
Jahangir shared rule with British East India Company.
It took Lli region in west around Lake Baikal.
Ch'ien Lung controlled north to Amur River and south to Indochina. He won Lli region in west around Lake Baikal [1761], Burma [1769], and Nepal and Tibet [1792].
France defeated England and held Madras, Carnatic, and Deccan.
Robert Clive took Madras [1761], Northern Circars [1766], Calcutta and Bengal [1759] at Battle of Chinsura, and Bihar [1757] at Battle of Plassy and Battle of Buxar [1764].
Warren Hastings of England took Oudh [1801] from Mogul Empire.
Moguls ruled India under system of Dual Control. East India Company ruled British north-central India {Raj} under governors appointed by England.
Cornwallis took Ceylon [1789], Salem [1792], and Malabar [1792] from Mogul Empire.
England began to send prisoners to Australia.
Holland ruled Indonesia directly when Dutch East India Company ended.
Wellesley took Fravancore [1795], Mysore [1799], Carnatic, Upper Doab [1803], Lower Doab [1801], Rohil Khand [1801], Hyderabad or Nizam's Dominions [1800], Rajputana, Jaipur, and Lucknow. Wellesley fought Battle of Argaon [1803] and Battle of Assaye [1803]. Maratha Confederacy held Gaikwar, Peishwa, Khandesh, Holkar, Orissa, and Chota Nagpur.
Britain colonized it.
Portugal colonized it.
Portugal colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Portugal colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
Nation became independent but lost Cambodia and Laos.
Britain took Indonesia from Holland.
East India Company lost trade monopoly in north-central India.
Missionaries first came to north-central India.
Netherlands regained Indonesia from Britain.
Mahrattas lost to Britain.
It included Tahiti, Moorea, Meetia and Tetiaroa. It was French protectorate [1842 to 1880].
Britain got all of Australia.
Treaty between Maori and Britain began New Zealand colony. Sheep wool was main export. Later, meat and milk were exports.
Nation became self-governed.
Population was 200,000,000, with 70% Hindu, 20% Muslim, and the rest Buddhist or Christian.
Taiping rebelled. 20,000,000 died as British General Gordon led Chinese soldiers against rebels.
Britain colonized it in 1852 and 1886.
Nation built first railroad in India.
Second Anglo-Chinese War ended with Treaty of Tientsin.
Britain colonized it.
Saying grease on new cartridges used animal fat, Bengal soldiers revolted against the British. This preceded revolts elsewhere {Indian Mutiny}. British suppressed revolts and deposed Mogul emperor. British government appointed viceroy, and East India Company no longer ruled.
France began to conquer all of Vietnam and succeeded by 1890. Phan Boi Chau led Dong Du revolt. Phan Chu Trinh and Dong Kinh Nghia Thuc were intellectual leaders. Nguyen Thai Hoc led revolt. Nguyen Ai Quoc (Ho Chi Minh) started Indochinese Party [1930]. He led August 1945 Revolution, which proclaimed republic September 2, 1945. In 1946, France invaded, but later it lost at Dien Bien Phu [1954].
Russia took back area around Lake Baikal [1858] and Amur and Ussuri [1860].
France colonized it.
Third Anglo-Chinese War ended with French and British in control in Peking.
France colonized it.
France took it.
Prisoners no longer went to Australia. Australia had 1,000,000 people.
Britain colonized it.
British soldiers were withdrawn.
Britain colonized it in 1874, 1886, and 1914.
Britain colonized it.
France colonized it.
Nation wanted India to become dominion.
France colonized it.
Britain colonized it.
USA colonized it.
USA colonized it.
Japan colonized it.
France colonized it.
Germany colonized it.
USA colonized it.
Britain took Burma.
France took Annam.
Russia took back Manchuria by 1900.
Nation gained independence from England and formed federation.
Australia got New Guinea (Papua).
Kuomintang, KMT, or National Peoples Party began.
All-India Moslem League started with Aga Khan as leader.
Nation gained independence from England.
Nation ended when revolution overthrew last emperor, Pu Yi.
Nation formed under Sun-Yat-Sen when emperor abdicated.
Nation became independent of China.
Japan had Twenty-one Demands on China.
Gandhi and his supporters forced moderates out of National Congress party in India and started to work for full independence from Britain.
Nation boycotted Japanese goods.
Gandhi and National Congress party began passive resistance.
Mongolian People's Republic started [1924] with Sino-Soviet treaty. China proclaimed Mongolia independent [1946].
Kuomintang set up government under Chang Kai-Shek after expelling Communists, who retreated north under Mao Tse-Tung and Chu Teh.
Nation became democracy but was still ruled by Chakkri Dynasty.
Nation became independent of Britain.
Nation became dictatorship when military junta deposed king in coup.
Moslem League stated that it wanted Moslem state.
Ho Chi Minh established North Vietnam and started war with France, which ended in 1954.
Nation became free of France.
Nation had Russian and USA zones. Russian zone became Communist North Korea [1948], and USA zone became democratic South Korea.
Nationalists fought Netherlands and formed republic, which included Sumatra, Java, and Madura.
Nation became independent of USA. Ferdinand Marcos became president later.
Douglas MacArthur of USA ruled it.
Nation became independent of Britain and included mostly Hindu areas.
Moslem state began. West Pakistan was in northwest India. East Pakistan was in east India.
Nation became republic.
Nation became republic.
Netherlands ended war against Indonesia republic.
Nationalists under Chang Kai-Shek took over Formosa.
China took Tibet.
Karen native peoples revolted, followed by a military coup.
Nation became constitutional monarchy and signed peace treaty. Admiral Ridgway occupied it. Liberal Democratic Party emphasized trade.
It became independent of France.
It became independent of France.
Nation became independent of Netherlands.
Indonesia nationalized all Netherlands property, but economy faded.
It became republic but still was in British Commonwealth of Nations. Before, it was dominion.
Nation became independent of Britain.
China collectivized all agriculture, but floods caused Great Leap Forward to fail [1960].
It became self-governing.
Conference diminished struggle of North Vietnam for control of Laos.
It became independent of Netherlands. Name became Papua New Guinea [1972 to 1975].
It became independent of Britain.
Revolution followed Mao's ideas about philosophy, art, society, and revolution, led by Red Guards. Army restored order [1969]. 500,000 people died.
East Pakistan broke from West Pakistan and renamed itself.
USA withdrew after signing Paris Agreements. Victory of Ho Chi Minh Campaign took Saigon [1975].
Indonesia annexed East Timor.
Bronze Age city-states had mud public buildings, priests, writing, agricultural organization, irrigation, pottery, and metalworking.
Neolithic Semitic peoples lived there, followed by Hamitic peoples from northeast and north Africa.
Copper Age culture began when Eridu, Kish, Lagash, Uruk or Erech, and Ur city-states, each having tens of thousands of people, united. Earthen banks, ditches, and canals drained water from marshes. Houses had reed and mud platforms. Sun-dried mud bricks built fortified cities. It had government, contracts for marriages, divorce by men or women, slaves, and trade to get copper and tin. Men shaved. People wore jewelry and furry skirts. People acquired status. Advisers memorized and copied knowledge. Cylinder seals recorded transactions.
Nile is 1000 kilometers long and six to twenty kilometers wide and has regular flooding. Copper Age culture had papyrus boats, flax textiles, plowing, raking, manuring, stone masonry, and copper hammering.
Old Kingdom dynasty included Menes.
Bronze Age culture reached west coast of England for tin trade. England is Tin Isles.
Ugarit is now Ras Shamra, Syria.
Bronze Age culture was east of Babylon.
Bronze Age culture was east of Kish.
Bronze Age culture was southeast of Kish.
Bronze Age culture was southeast of Umma in south Mesopotamia.
Bronze Age culture was near upper Euphrates River on trade route from Damascus to Babylon.
Perhaps, 2nd Dynasty was from -2884 to -2664.
Earliest dynasty began.
Bronze Age Kranzhugel culture was near Khabur River and had fortifications around city, 600-meter-diameter wall with four gates and 300-meter-diameter wall. It used Sumerian script and Old-Semitic language.
In 3rd to 8th dynasties, Memphis was capital in Upper Egypt. Heliopolis was near Memphis. Saqqara was in Upper Egypt, just south of Memphis. Hermopolis was much farther south, followed by Tel-el-Amarna. Thebes was much farther south. Abu Simbel was far south.
Nubia is to west of Abu Simbel. Kush is to east of Abu Simbel.
Dams and canals regulated Nile River.
Upper class women wore nice clothes, had jewelry, had hairstyles, used cosmetics, were independent, and had good treatment as wives and mothers.
Of two thousand gods, Horus was kings' god.
Bronze Age culture was south of Aleppo, had 250,000 non-Semitic people, and used cuneiform writing with Semitic language. Bronze Age culture used city planning. It traded with Mediterranean. King Ibrium was most-famous king.
Cheops founded IV Dynasty. Other pharaohs built rest of pyramids and Sphinx.
Nation ended when conquered by Sargon of Akkad.
Nation began with Sargon I, as Semitic peoples conquered Sumer city-states in south Mesopotamia. 5000 professional soldiers used overlapping shields in front of protruding spears. Bows had horn and wood layers. Kings and priests separated. Kings built palaces, commissioned art about war victories, and spread Semitic and Sumerian ideas.
Nation ended when conquered by King Naram-Sin of Akkad.
In 9th to 11th dynasties, Thebes was capital. It settled Kush. It conquered Nubia for gold. Nubia is between first and third cataracts of Nile. Copper came from Sinai.
Nation ended when Sargon I's grandson lost to Gutians from mountains.
Semitic Amorites from Assyria and Caucasian Gutians ended Akkad Dynasty.
In 12th Dynasty, Thebes was capital. Tombs in rock cliffs included King Tutankhamen.
Kings of Ur defeated Amorites and Gutians.
Nation began when Akkadian kings of Ur conquered Gutians. It ruled area from Susa on lower Tigris, beside Elam, to Byblos in Lebanon. It built large ziggurats.
Nation reached height.
Nation ended when conquered by Elam.
Nation settled in Turkey with capital at Hattushash. First king, Hattusilas I, invaded Syria. Second king, Mursilis I, destroyed Babylon [-1595] but someone killed him, and Hittites left Babylon. Suppiluliumas [-1380], king of Hittites, invaded Syria and controlled to Canaan, Palestine. It ended when Aegean Sea peoples attacked from Asia Minor.
Iron-Age culture federated Cappadocia cities and had iron, horses, cavalry, cuneiform writing, and legal system.
Iron-Age culture began when Hammurabi conquered Assyria Amorites and united Sumer and Akkad. It ruled Nineveh and Nimrod on Tigris River, Mari on upper Euphrates River, and cities on Euphrates River up to Aleppo, Syria. It was 700 miles long and 100 miles wide. It had commerce, learning, cuneiform writing, and monumental buildings.
The goddess Ishtar was like the goddess Astarte. Bel-Marduk was chief god. People were gods' slaves.
Nation started by revolt against Babylon. Susa, north of Persian Gulf, was capital.
Nation took horses from pastures north and east of Fertile Crescent, to pull two-wheel chariots with driver and bowman.
Hurrian culture from east Anatolia settled near Khabur River.
Nation ended when reduced by Hittites and Kassites.
Nation conquered Babylon.
Kassites from Zagros Mountains in Iran took Babylonia.
In 18th to 20th dynasties, Thebes was capital. Abu-Simbel had temples and statues. School for scribes taught honesty, respect for authority, discipline, application to study, and hieroglyphics. Food was emmer wheat, barley, and vegetables. Common people used hieratic alphabet.
Kassites took west Indus civilization, which had had floods and earthquakes.
People lived on east Mediterranean coast, grew cedar wood, corn, and olives and produced oil, wine, and cloth, which they traded with Crete, Egypt, Cyprus, and Troy. It built Tyre and Sidon. Phoenicia had purple cloth, and Phoenicia is Greek for "purple".
Nation controlled from Levant to Persian Gulf.
Hittites drove Mitanni from west of Euphrates River.
Nation ended when Hittites took whole kingdom.
Nation conquered south to Egypt, fighting Ramses II.
Byblos, Baalbek or Heliopolis, Tyre, and Sidon were cities. Trade was among city-states around Mediterranean Sea to Atlantic Ocean. They built ships, worked glass and metal, and wove and dyed cloth. Alphabet was basis for Greek and Roman alphabets. Bel or Ba'al is Semitic Sun God. El is chief god.
Nation peaked in west Iran.
Nation ended when Thracians, Phrygians from Thrace, and Assyrians broke it up.
Gordion was capital.
Nation began when Tiglath Pileser I conquered most of Asia Minor. Nineveh was capital. Ashur was city. Hierapolis was religious center on Euphrates River.
Phoenicians colonized Italy.
Lower Egypt was separate from Upper Egypt.
Nation began when King Saul conquered Canaan and King David defeated Philistines and others. Jerusalem was capital. King Solomon followed David and built Temple in Jerusalem. Hebrews became monotheistic and began to worship only their tribal god Yahweh. Other religions allowed worship of tribal god and other regional gods. Yahweh was creator god, and people were highest creation. People can know good and evil and must have will to follow the law of Yahweh.
Phoenicians colonized Spain.
Priest-kings at Thebes became independent of pharaohs.
Nation ended by defeat by Babylon.
Sabeans in south Arabia started it. It was wealthy and colonized Ethiopia.
Nation was in north Arabia.
Kingdom of Judah, the Benjamin and Judah tribes in south at Jerusalem, fought Kingdom of Israel, the ten other tribes in north at Samaria.
Hebrew kingdom split into ten tribes of Israel in north at Samaria and Benjamin and Judah tribes in Judah in south near Jerusalem.
Ten tribes of Israel split from the Benjamin and Judah tribes, who stayed in Judah in south near Jerusalem.
Adadnirari II founded it. Main rulers were Sargon II, his son Sennacherib, his son Esarhaddon, and his son Ashurbanipal. Esarhaddon had Sennacherib killed. It controlled trade routes, built palaces, and set stone tablets. Medes and Babylonians conquered it [-612].
Phoenicians colonized Cyprus.
Phoenicians colonized north Africa.
Phoenicians colonized Straits of Gibraltar.
Nation began when Ashurnasirpal III conquered to Mediterranean, using iron weapons, conscripted soldiers, artillery, and cavalry with armor. Calah or Nimrud was capital on upper Tigris River. Khorsabad was capital. Nineveh was capital. Harran in Assyria was another city. It used Aramaic language. Main god was Assur.
Nation reached height.
Indo-Europeans moved into west and northwest Iran.
Nation had twenty-five colonies around Mediterranean.
Nation ended when Assyrians destroyed Samaria and deported all Hebrews, resulting in dispersal of tribes {ten lost tribes of Israel} {lost tribes of Israel}. However, Assyrians did not take Judah.
Nation ended when conquered by Lydia.
Assyrians conquered Egypt.
Gyges founded it. Sardis was capital. Gordium was city. It was first nation to use coins [-640].
Assyrians took Egypt.
Nation ended in west Iran when conquered by Assurbanipal.
Nation started when warrior horsemen and nomads from central Asia invaded New Assyrian Empire and took Palestine. Later, it fought Medes. It ended when it lost to Darius of Persia.
Babylon, Chaldeans, Medes, and Egypt revolted.
Nation began with Babylonian revolt from New Assyrian Empire. It combined astronomy and mathematics. It ended when defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia.
Babylonians and Medes took the Assyrian capital, Nineveh.
Nation ended when Medes destroyed Nineveh.
In northwest Iran, Arbaces defeated Assyrians at Nineveh. Hamadana, then Ecbatana, then Nineveh became capital. It used astronomy and magic. His successors fought against Babylonia to south, Scythians to north, and Lydians to west. It ended when Cyrus the Great of Persia defeated it.
Assyrians conquered Sidon and Tyre, so only Phoenician colonies remained.
Indo-Europeans moved to south of Iran, to Tigris River, and into Elam.
Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon destroyed Jerusalem and deported all people to Babylon {Babylonian Captivity}.
Tribe of Medean priests became Persian Empire priests.
Nation began when Cyrus the Great conquered Media [-549], Lydia, Babylon, and Egypt [-525] and founded Achaemenid Dynasty. Persepolis or Takht-e-Jamshid, Susa or Shush, Lorestan, Passargadae, and Ecbatana were capitals. Persia used Assyrian-government structure, with independent satrapies under governor. It built road from Fars to Aegean Sea and other roads. Aramaic was language. Persia had iron ore and hilly pastures for many horses. Babylonian and Egyptian arts influenced Persian arts.
Nation ended when beaten by Cyrus the Great of Persia.
Nation ended when defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia.
Nation ended when defeated by Cyrus the Great of Persia.
Persians and Greeks ended Phoenician control of east Mediterranean.
Nation ended when Alexander the Great of Macedonia defeated Darius III at Gaugamela.
Nation ended when conquered by Alexander the Great.
After Alexander the Great died, Seleucus I, general of Alexander, took Babylon and eastern lands conquered by Alexander the Great. He took Anatolia and north Syria at Battle of Ipsus [-301] against Antigonus I of Macedon and later defeated Lysimachus of Macedon. He conquered to Indus River. Greek became language of Near East. 200,000 people were in Antioch, Syria. 200,000 people were in Seleucia, new capital near Babylon.
Nation ended after being conquered by Alexander the Great.
Nation began when Pars under Arsaces revolted against Seleucids. Parthians were Indo-Europeans descended from Scythians.
Seleucus II lost to Ptolemy III of Egypt in Third Syrian War.
Antiochus III the Great [-223 to -187] lost Battle of Raphia [-217], won Battle of Panium [-198] to control Coele-Syria (Beqaa Valley of Lebanon), lost Battle of Thermopylae [-191], lost Battle of Magnesia [-190], and ceded much in Treaty of Apamea [-188] with Rome. Galatia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Armenia, Media, Mardia, and Parthia became separate regions.
Celts migrated to Turkey.
Antiochus IV went to Egypt, but Roman threats forced him to withdraw. Maccabees revolted in Judea.
Nation became independent under Jewish rule. Jews had developed synagogues for reading and teaching law. Jews developed the idea of Day of Judgment and salvation.
Rome took Judaea and set up overseer. Jews spread over Mediterranean in the Diaspora.
Parthians defeated Romans. Parthians approached on horseback, then turned around, and then shot arrow {Parthian shot}|. Parthian horsemen and horses had chain-mail armor.
Nation extended into India.
Nation lost to Rome and started decline.
Nation ended when Rome destroyed Jerusalem.
Hadrian ordered all Jews out of Judaea.
Nation ended when Ardashir I or Artaxerxes of Fars revolted, killed last Parthian king, and founded Sassanian Empire.
Roman Empire divided into east and west for last time after Theodosius the Great's death, when he gave half to his two sons, followed by religious struggles over doctrine.
Law of Citations, of Theodosius II and Valentian III, allowed citations only from five famous jurists: Julian, Gaius, Papinian, Paul, and Ulpian.
Nation ended in south Arabia when conquered by Ethiopia.
Belisarius, Byzantine general, controlled east and south Italy after defeating Vandals, who then merged into population.
Justinian I of Byzantine Empire defeated Ostrogoths.
Nation started when Abu Bakr led theocracy as caliph and conquered all Arabia in two years [634]. He then attacked Damascus and Sassanids in Persia.
Nation captured Damascus, Syria, and Egypt.
Nation took Jerusalem.
Arabs conquered Berbers of North Africa.
al-Fustat was new capital of Egypt.
Nation took Persia.
Nation controlled whole Middle East, except Byzantine Empire.
Nation lost Italy, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Africa, and Sicily to Moslem Conquest.
Nubians and Arabs agreed to Aswan on Nile River as boundary.
Nation invaded Tunisia, which was part of Byzantine Empire.
Nation attacked Constantinople.
Nation besieged Constantinople by land and sea but failed. Byzantine army used Greek fire at sea.
It destroyed Byzantine city at Carthage and built new city of Tunis nearby.
It took Carthage and north Africa. Moroccans {Moors} and Berbers became Moslem. It absorbed north-Africa Maghreb Christians.
Omayyads conquered Sind and founded Muslim state in India.
Nation was at greatest extent, with Damascus as capital.
Nation attacked Constantinople, which had 500,000 people.
Nation took Toulouse.
Nation lost to Khazars in Caucasus.
Nation defeated Maitraka Dynasty.
Senbad tried to avenge death of Abu Moslem.
Arabs and Persians explore East African coast and set up trading stations at Malindi, Mombasa, Kilwa, and Mogadishu.
Cyril and Methodius tried to convert Slavic peoples.
Babak revolted against Moslems.
It enslaved Slavs.
Arab Moslems from north Africa took Sicily.
Fatimite sect set up caliphate in Africa, which first conquered Libya and Cyrenaica [909], and then Sicily, west Arabia, Palestine, and Syria. Fatimite sect of Islam believed that only direct descendants of Fatima, Mohammad's daughter, were true caliphs.
All-e Buyeh took Baghdad [947].
The warrior Mardavij led.
The writer Ghabus-e-Voshmgir led.
Kaykavoos Ebn Eskandar was leader.
Byzantine Empire took Bulgaria.
Muslim Turks from central Asia defeated Ghaznavids, went to Persia, and reached Baghdad. Abbasid caliph named leader Tughril Beg regent and sultan. Seljuk Turks invaded Asia Minor [1065] and Turkish language and people followed.
Nation began when Toghrol defeated Byzantine Empire at Manzikert, after attacking Greece from both north and east. It built Friday Mosque at Isfahan [1088]. Seljuk Turks are Mongoloid peoples from south Siberia and Turkestan.
Alp Arsalan followed Toghrol. Nezam-ol Molk or Nezamiya was vizier of Alp and built many schools for Islam.
Nation defeated First Crusade under Peter the Hermit.
Nation took Palestine. It attacked Christians on pilgrimages. Byzantine emperor appealed for help, and the pope [1095] called a crusade.
West Africa, Niger, and Somalia became Islamic.
Nation ended when Baldwin I and Baldwin II of Byzantine Empire defeated Seljuk Turks in north Syria.
Nation ended when Saladin overthrew Fatimite caliph Nureddim and started Ayyubite Dynasty.
Ottoman Turks or Osmanli Turks settled in Turkey under Orkhan. Bursa was capital.
Nation started when Fourth Crusade army defeated Byzantine Empire at Constantinople.
Ottoman Turks tried to take Constantinople for 200 years.
Nation started when Emir Eibek killed the Ayyubite sultan. Mamelukes were Turkish and Circassian soldier-slaves of Fatimite caliphs and Ayyubite sultans. Bahrite Dynasty of Turks and Mongols ruled [1250 to 1382]. Burjite Dynasty of Circassians ruled [1382 to 1517].
Greek Orthodox Church and Byzantine Empire separated entirely from west at end of Latin Empire of Constantinople. Byzantine Empire got only part of Greece.
Nation ended when Byzantine Empire regained power with help from Osmanli Turks or Ottoman Turks.
Nation ended Crusader States.
Principality was northeast of Turkey. Osman ruled it. Bursa was Ottoman capital.
Osman I took Bursa, capital of Mongols in Asia Minor, to begin empire.
Murad I or Amaruth I took Adrianople [1361], won at Skopje [1371], and fought at Larisa, Thessalonika, Seres, Philippopolis, Sophia, Turnovo, and Nicopolis [1393], and fought at Widin [1389]. He got tribute from Byzantine Empire. He defeated Serbs and Bulgarians at Kossovo or Nish [1389].
Nation started when Tamerlane or Timur Lang, Mongol, became Khan and conquered Persia, India down to Delhi, south Russia, and Levant. Samarkand was capital. Harat or Herat, Afghanistan, was main city.
Nation conquered Asia Minor.
Bajazet I or Bayazit I or Bayazid I took east Anatolia, defeated Christians at Nikopol [1396], and besieged Constantinople [1402] but lost to Tamerlane at Ankara (Angora). Tamerlane sacked Bursa in northwest Turkey [1423].
Tamerlane defeated Tughlakids of Delhi Sultanate.
Turkomans captured Baghdad and western lands from Timurids. Turkomans and Uzbeks then raided deep into empire [1450].
Nation had only Constantinople and some land west. It had Romanus gate.
Muhammed II or Mehmet II took Constantinople, which became the capital Istanbul.
Ottoman Empire took all of Greece.
It annexed Serbia and Macedonia, but Montenegro remained independent.
Ottoman Empire took Bosnia.
Nation took Balkan Peninsula, Trebizond and Karamania in Asia, and part of Khanate of Crimea.
Nation lost Belgrade, Albania, and Rhodes to Knights Hospitalers.
Ottoman Empire took Albania from Venice.
Ottoman Empire took Moldavia after King Stephen the Great of Moldavia died.
Safavids and Ottomans warred.
Nation ended when conquered by Ottoman Turks under Selim I.
Selim I took Egypt and Syria from Mamelukes and assumed caliphate as Sunni. He also captured Kurdistan from Persia and took Mecca and Medina.
Ottomans ruled Croatia.
Suleiman I the Magnificent took Belgrade [1527], Rhodes, Arab north African coast [1528 to 1541], and Persia. He defeated Magyars of Hungary at Mohacs [1526] and later took control of Hungary to Budapest and into Moldavia. Barbarossa commanded his fleet, which controlled Mediterranean Sea. He did not take Malta. He besieged Vienna [1529]. He lost Tunis to Charles V of Austria.
Nation lost at sea at Lepanto, west Greece, to Spain and Venice.
Nation besieged Vienna, but siege was broken.
Janizaries, abducted Christian soldiers, had harsh training and later gained power and controlled who became sultan. Empire had bribery and corruption.
Nation tried to take Venice.
Treaty of Karlowitz gave Venice, Poland, and Holy Roman Empire most of Turkish Europe.
Religious leaders {ulema} spread revolt.
Britain colonized it.
Janizaries all died.
Crimean War stopped Russia slightly, but Bulgaria, Bosnia, Hercegovinia, Montenegro, and Serbia rebelled against Ottomans.
Midhat Pasha declared a constitution [1876], but Abdul-Hamid II ended it.
Russia and Romania declared war against Ottomans, and Treaty of San Stefano gave more territory to Russia and freed Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.
Nation became British protectorate.
Nation lost all European lands after Balkan Wars. Enver Pasha of Young Turks became dictator.
Nation became British protectorate.
Turkey fought on side of Germany in World War I and succeeded in Gallipoli campaign.
Britain occupied Iraq, helping it against Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman Empire agreed to armistice.
Britain gained mandate over Iraq.
France gained control over Levant States of Syria and Lebanon.
Under Wafd party, it became independent of Britain.
Nation ended when Kemal Ataturk replaced Sultan and led Turkey.
Nation became emirate under Abdullah.
Nation became independent of France.
Britain gained mandate over Jordan.
Nation became independent of Britain. Later, Faisal II became king.
Nation united territories into republic.
Nation became independent of France.
Nation became independent of Britain.
United Nations divided Palestine into Jewish state, Arab state, and international area around Jerusalem. Jewish state was from Haifa to Sea of Galilee down to Gaza and Gulf of Aqaba and over to Dead Sea. Arab state was on west bank of Jordan River and in Gaza Strip.
Naguib and Nasser led democracy after deposing King Farouk.
Military junta ruled after military coup.
Egypt and Syria combined.
Egypt nationalized most industries.
Military junta ruled after coup.
Nation nationalized some industries.
Nation took over.
Ayatollah Khomeini started Islamic Republic in Iran after shah left. He died in 1989.
Israel returned Sinai Peninsula to Egypt.
USA invaded and deposed Saddam Hussein.
Bronze Age culture began when sea trade united Greek islands. Era of peace followed. Pictograph writing became linear writing. Minos was legendary king of Crete. They used bronze, were rich traders, and built towns, ports, and palaces. Pottery has bird and fish designs. Mycenaeans from Plain of Argos in east Greece invaded and settled Crete [-1450], ending Minoan civilization.
Bronze Age culture included Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations.
Bronze Age culture had palaces at Knossus, Phaistos, and Mallia. Cretan alphabet came from Semitic language Phoenician alphabet.
Nation brought Linear A alphabet.
Mycenaeans lived on Plain of Argos in east Greece and built towns with defensive walls, as at Tiryns, Pylos, and Mycenae. After Minoan civilization fell, they occupied Crete [-1450] and took over sea trade. It had warriors, fortress-like palaces, and massive royal tombs, like Treasury of Atreus. It traded with Sicily and Italy. They founded colonies at Rhodes and Cyprus. They changed Minoan script into Greek alphabet. Invaders destroyed Mycenae [-1120].
Nation followed Early Minoan or Cretan civilization and had palaces at Knossus, Phaescus, and Hagia Triada. It had sea trading and navy.
Celts, including Druids, came to Britain. Stone Age people built dolmen.
Nation ended when volcano island Thera erupted, making tidal waves and ash.
Nation was in west-central Europe. Lugh was greatest hero. Bel, Baal, or Beil was chief god. Holidays were Beltane or May Day and Halloween.
Greeks destroyed Mycenae.
Peoples from Asia Minor, probably Lydia, founded it in north and central Italy.
Greeks established colonies.
Nation ended by movements of Dorians.
Dorians founded it in south Greece.
Nation was in Asia Minor east of Lesbos, including Phocaea on coast and Sardis inland.
Nation was group of city-states in west-central Italy.
Greeks colonized it. Crotona is also Croton.
Greeks colonized north Greece.
Greeks colonized Spain south coast.
Nation was a warrior culture.
Big city-states were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, Samos, and Miletus. Athens is famous for pottery. Athens, then Corinth, and then Thebes were dominant. Greeks traded at Caere in west-central Italy, Naucratis in Egypt on Mediterranean, and Daphnae in Egypt at top of Red Sea.
Politicians began, along with rhetoric. Citizens met in assemblies to decide actions. Foreign traders and artisans were not citizens. Women and slaves were not citizens. Women stayed at home, wore veil when they went out, did not speak to anyone outside home, did not own property, and did not go to school. Schoolboys memorized literature, wrote, took music, and did gymnastics. People consulted Delphic oracle. Gods were like humans, not animals.
Traditionally, Romulus was first king, and Romulus and Remus founded it [-753]. It is on Tiber River. Etruscans and Latins settled there. Kingdom ended, and Roman Republic began [-509], with two consuls, elected for one year.
Greeks founded colony.
Peoples from Balkans founded it. Etruria, Umbria, and Latium were cities. It used Greek alphabet. Elba Island and Italy had iron ore. They had iron tools and pottery. People wore togas. Warriors fought contests. Oracles read animal entrails. Wolf was totem.
Greeks founded colony.
Aristocrats or landholders, who bought horses and hoplite soldiers, ruled city-states. Soldiers had armor, helmets, spears, shields, and formations.
Nobles and priests {eupatrid} formed Council of Areopagus, which was chief criminal court and appointed magistrates and officials. Middle classes included skilled workers and tradesmen {demiurgoi} and farmers {georgoi} but had little power. Draco codified laws.
Recession caused many free farmers to lose land. Because land had divided among heirs so often, plots were too small for profit.
Greeks colonized Asia Minor and Black Sea.
Greeks colonized France.
Greeks colonized Italy.
Greeks colonized Sicily.
Greeks colonized Spain. Current name of Tarshish is Cadiz, Spain.
Greeks colonized Syria.
Nation began when Lycurgus set up military state.
Assemblies held power. Smaller assembly, Gerousia, had 30 men, all older than 60, elected by ballot from among propertied men {homoioi} that had finished military service. Larger assembly, Appella, had all free men over 30 and only accepted or rejected Gerousia suggestions.
Sparta had five elected magistrates, two kings, and 1000 families of citizens. One king was for religion, and one king was for war. The police {Krypteia} were under upper class {ephor} and policed lower classes {helot}.
Currency used iron. Rulers banned silver, gold, and arts. Workers manufactured only simple things. Rulers divided all land equally.
Rulers encouraged having more children but killed infant boys if they were not healthy. At age 7, boys left home and stayed in public school. Only men over age 30 stayed with their wives. All men ate together, in small groups. Families raised women strictly.
Nation confederated Tarquinii, Caere, Veii, and Clusiam. Caere had 25,000 people. Oligarchies ruled.
Revolt deposed the tyrant Hippias.
Nation started when Lucius Junius Brutus overthrew Tarquin Dynasty of Etruscan kings and started Roman Republic. Brutus became consul. As tribute, local kings had to supply men for army. Property-owning citizens also had to serve in army. Citizens faced conscription. Noble patrician families ruled at first. Later, Senate ruled. Senate elected two Consuls to govern as magistrates for one year. Tribunes championed the people.
Warrior class developed and tyrants ruled city-states {polis}.
Celts invaded Spain.
Republic subdued nearby Samnite and Latin city-states.
Nation developed from west-Europe and central-Europe Altai and Hallstatt peoples. Celts invaded Spain -500. They had Celt language and writing. They had hill-forts, used horses, and worked iron. Supreme sky god had many powers. Cernunnos was Celtic fertility god. Taranic was sun god and thunder god. Dagda was the Good God.
Xerxes burned Athens.
Athens was dominant city-state. Athens forced 150 other cities to pay for the fleet, eventually by treaty [-449].
Council of Areopagus powers went to ekklesia and juries. Archons became powerless. Instead, ekklesia elected ten generals {strategoi}.
Senate appointed ten men {Decemviri} {Ten Men} to write laws. Decemviri published a law code {Code of the Twelve Tables} that gave equality to all classes and depended on clan customs. After finishing, Decemviri refused to resign, ruled tyrannically, and abused power. Senate soon regained power.
Plebeians elected tribunes, who later vetoed laws. Veto {veto} means "I forbid it".
Greeks took Campania and Elba.
Nation ended when conquered by Romans.
Gauls sacked Rome.
Nation began when Philip II organized administration and armies, using gold taken from Thrace. Alexander the Great was Philip II's son. Alexander's generals ruled after his death, until descendants lost to Romans.
Nation ended when Macedonia defeated Greeks at Chaeronea.
Greek trade, ideas, and art spread throughout Middle East. Wealthy enjoyed comforts, literature, and learning. Alexandria, Syracuse, and Pergamon (Pergamum) were cultural centers. 200,000 people were in Alexandria.
Alexander the Great took Babylon, Persepolis, Medea, Parthia, Bactria, and Samarkand from Scythians. He went down Indus River Valley in west India, then went along Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf to Babylon, and died there.
After Alexander died, Successors or Diadochi, Alexander's generals, fought each other, until Antigonus II conquered Macedon and united Greece.
Romans defeated King Pyrrhus of Epirus and controlled central and south Italy.
First plebian became chief priest {pontifex maximus}. He offered public legis-actiones instruction, and lawyer profession began.
Sardinia and Corsica became subject to Rome.
Romans besieged and took Syracuse. Archimedes died during siege.
Celtic myths described Celtic heroes, heroines, kings, and druids. Vikings had warrior societies.
Small farmers had heavy military taxes. Landowners took small-farmer lands and formed large estates. Money collected by Rome mostly went to landowners and businesses.
Egypt had to pay tribute.
Rome took over Macedon and Greece.
Nation ended when Philip V lost twice to Rome, and Perseus lost to Rome in Macedonian Wars. Macedonia became first Roman province.
It controlled Pergamon (Pergamum) and Greece. Rome took north Spain and south France. Rome defeated Philip V of Macedon, Antiochus III of Syria, and Egypt. Senate ruled. The plebians or people received more rights. Rome became wealthy but not for plebians.
Rome took south Gaul and named it province of Narbonensis in southeast France.
Parthia stopped Roman soldiers at Euphrates River, where Parthians ruled.
Marsic War or Social War forced Rome to give citizenship to all free Italians and ended with government-authority reestablishment.
Caius Marius fought Jugurtha, king of Numidians, but Sulla got army command.
Romans conquered Judah.
Julius Caesar organized the First Triumvirate with Pompey and wealthy Crassus. Caesar championed the people against Senate. He also divorced his second wife Pompeia after her scandal with Clodius.
Rome took Helvetia and Rhaetia.
Rome took all of Gaul.
End of republic began when Octavian (Augustus) defeated Antony and Cleopatra at Actium.
Rome defeated Celts and controlled Pannonia and Dacia.
Rome took direct control over Judaea.
Julian-Claudian Dynasty of emperors ruled.
From Augustus to before Diocletian {Principate}, emperor was Senate leader. The popular assembly had little power. During Principate, old Roman law became consistent, refined, and practical. Legal scholarship began.
Nation began with St. Peter, first bishop of Rome. Today, pope rules Holy See from Vatican. College of Cardinals, each of whom also has a See, selects pope. Church claims that he is representative of Christ, Vicar of Christ or Vicegerent of Christ. In Catholicism, bishop of Rome is main bishop, because Jesus had designated St. Peter, who became bishop of Rome, church leader {Petrine supremacy, Catholicism}.
Rome took it and controlled north Morocco and northwest Algeria.
Roman force explored Nile River Valley.
The people believed that Christians had angered Roman gods, blamed Christians, and persecuted them by burning them or by exposing them to beasts in the arena. Perhaps, Peter and Paul died then.
Death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius ended Pax Romana.
Rome under Agricola conquered south Britain.
It persecuted Christians for failing to follow law and make sacrifices to emperor and Roman gods. By 300, one-tenth of Roman Empire was Christian.
Antonines ruled. Rome had 1,000,000 people.
Christian persecution resumed.
Rome fortified towns, as Alemanni raided to Milan and Goths reached Greece.
In empire after Diocletian {Dominate}, emperor was absolute ruler. Emperor had agencies for finance, legislation, administration, and his household.
The imperial bureaucracy and treasury did not use old legal forms. Edicts set administrative law. Imperial legislation replaced all other laws. Individual judicial decisions were not laws, except by imperial decree.
High taxes forced peasants into semi-slavery {colonate}, as tenants to large landholders. Empire had monopolies, fixed peasantry, and closed job groups. Economic system resembled feudalism.
Constantine the Great reunited eastern and western Roman Empires.
Constantine the Great moved capital to Constantinople (formerly Byzantium).
Romans left Britain.
Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Aquitaine.
Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Austrasia.
Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Burgundy.
Saxons and Angles settled in Britain.
Franks held area around Paris.
Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Neustria.
Franks conquered west and central Europe and formed separate Kingdom of Orleans.
Saxons and Angles settled in south Britain.
Saxons and Angles settled in west Britain.
Franks defeated Ostrogoths north of Alps.
Nation began when Lombards under King Albion took north Italy. Pavia was capital.
Nation conquered north-central Italy. Liutprand led at height. They accepted Christianity and Latin culture.
Scyld was first king of Denmark. Njord was father of Freyr and Freyja. Freyr is ancestor of the kings in Yngling Saga of Iceland. Old Danish king tombs are at Leire or Roskilde in Denmark. Birka, Sweden, was another town. Vikings had ship burials. Cult of Thor was strong. A three-way knot {Valknut} was in weaving and on stone carvings.
Northumbrian king favored Roman Church over Celtic Church.
Many kingdoms fought, causing anarchy.
Venice became a republic, with an elected doge (duke).
Provinces were Ulster, Munster, Leinster, Connaught, and Meath. Cormac Mac Art was famous king.
Nation began raiding Ireland.
Nation had trade and agriculture. It grew barley and oats and had cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry. People lived in longhouses near coasts. It built ships. It had a runic alphabet and carved messages on wood, metal, and stone. It had assemblies {thing, assembly} {nation, thing} to decide laws and judge crimes. Criminals became slaves for Scandinavian farms or farms abroad. As population increased, 800, Vikings raided coasts of Britain, Ireland, and France.
Nation began when north African nomads, Moors, converted to Islam, invaded Spain under Berber King Tarik, and defeated last Visigoth King Roderick [715]. Then Moors captured Lusitania (Portugal). They failed to take Kingdom of Asturias in north Spain. There was no strong central government.
Bulgars moved into Balkans and north Greece.
Papal States began when Pepin the Short gave Ravenna and Adriatic Coast of Italy to Pope. Patrimony of St. Peter was land in Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia that Constantine I supposedly had given to Pope in the Donation.
Desiderius attacked Rome, but Charlemagne defeated Lombards.
Vikings raided British coast.
Vikings attacked England. English nobles paid raiders {Danegeld}.
Nation attacked Ireland.
Moravia took Bohemia, Silesia, south Poland, and north Hungary. Poland, Bohemia, and Moravia became Catholic Christian.
Nation took part of Switzerland.
Nation took part of Switzerland.
Nation was in east and north.
Rhodri Mawr the Great, prince of Gwynedd, defeated Vikings and England, and ruled Wales.
Nation attacked Nantes.
King Kenneth Mac Alpin was in west. He forced Vikings out, defeated Pictish kingdom, and became Pict king [843].
Nation overpopulation caused raids on Britain's coast and Europe's north coasts. Vikings had shipbuilding, sailing, and pagan mythology. Norse are Danes in England, Varangians in Russia, and Norsemen, Northmen, or Normans in rest of Europe.
Nation attacked Seville.
Nation colonized Iceland.
Nation attacked Nimes and Pisa.
Flanders became county under France.
Nation founded Novgorod, first town in north Russia, on Ilmen River, and attacked Khazars and eastern Slavs. Leader was Rurik. Varangians were Norsemen.
Danes took England.
Main Varangian town was Kiev or Kiev Rus, on Dnieper River. Varangians were Norsemen.
Nation attacked Germany and divided it into feudal domains.
Croatian kingdom began.
Nation started under Omayyeds when al-Mansur took almost all Spain.
Nation reached peak under Abdu-r-Rahman III, with university at Cordoba.
Last Carolingian king died, and small kingdoms began. Other main kingdoms were Franconia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Swabia. Smaller kingdoms were Frisia in northwest; Lower Lorraine in northwest; Upper Lorraine in west; Thuringia in east; Carinthia, Carniola, and Styria in southeast; Austria in east; Moravia in east; Bohemia in east; and Pomerania in northeast.
Nation formed an assembly {Althing}.
Nation formed in Burgundy and Provence.
Otto I united France and Germany, and the pope crowned him emperor [962]. German princes at Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle chose emperor, and then the pope crowned him at Rome. Before preceding prince died, nobles elected heir. Diet assembly met irregularly to control empire. Church became dominant, and crucifix became powerful symbol.
Silesia and Moravia became part of Bohemia.
Lucilinburhuc Castle [963] gives it its name. After 1437, Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns, and France ruled it. Congress of Vienna associated it to Netherlands as Grand Duchy, as it is today.
Nation became Christian. Vladimir was king.
Normans attacked Greece.
Iaroslav the Wise ruled Kiev Rus. Varangians merged with Slavs and raided Volga River area and Byzantine Empire, entering Greece.
Emperors absorbed feudal-lord duchies {stem duchies}. Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Lotharingia were still under feudal lords, and Frankfurt, Regensburg, and Augsburg remained free cities, so Holy Roman Empire was still confederation.
Denmark controlled South Sweden.
Nation was sea power.
Nation ended when another caliphate took over.
Nation became united at current size.
Nation ended when Canute died.
Nation was in north France.
Spanish kingdoms united.
Normans conquered Sicily.
Hungary ruled Croatia.
Normans under Robert Guiscard and Roger I took south Italy and Sicily.
Belgium was part of Lotharingia.
Nation became kingdom.
Venice helped Byzantine Empire against Normans of Greece. Venetian traders were then like Byzantine citizens, traded all over empire, and controlled all trade between Europe and East.
It chartered the free cities.
Nation started after Frederick I of Holy Roman Empire destroyed Milan.
Lombard League of towns formed, led by Milan. It fought against Frederick I of Holy Roman Empire for Pope Alexander III.
It was in Netherlands and Belgium and includes Brussels.
Bulgaria, under Ivan I, regained independence from Byzantine Empire.
Nation began to defend Christian lands in Palestine and Syria. Teutonic Knights conquered Poland, Silesia, and Prussia: Lubeck, Brandenburg, Prague, Dresden [1216], Thorn [1231], Marienwerder [1233], Elbing [1237], Berlin [1237], Stettin [1243], Danzig by 1250, Frankfurt [1253], and Königsberg [1286].
Belgium was part of lower Lorraine.
Montefeltro family led Urbino.
Nation began when Venice took Crete, Cyprus, Dalmatia, Venetia, Negroponte, and Greek islands. Venice built strong navy and defeated Egyptian navy. Canals run between islands in lagoon. Beach is the Lido. Rialto Bridge and Bridge of Sighs are famous, as are Palace of the Doge (duke) and St. Mark's cathedral.
Nation became kingdom.
League formed again.
Christians took Cordoba from Moslems.
Nation became autonomous after Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire defeated second Lombard League. It was Guelph city, supporting Papacy, but split into black and white Guelphs. It had silks, wools, and jewelry. It has Uffizi Gallery and Florence Cathedral.
Lübeck and Hamburg formed an association (Hansa) for trade and mutual protection.
Robber barons, nobles, and kings split Germany.
Nation gained Iceland and Greenland.
The pope gave it to Angevins after Papacy defeated Hohenstaufens of Holy Roman Empire. Naples also controlled Albania.
Ottocar II of Bohemia lost Austria to Rudolph I of Hapsburg. Slovenia was part of Austria.
Visconti family ruled Milan.
Nation started after wars with Venice and Pisa that ruined navy. Ghibelline city Pisa lost to Guelph city Genoa.
Nation became principality.
Three provinces of Switzerland confederated to be independent of Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire.
Gedimin and Olgerd, grand dukes of Lithuania, took Ukraine and Belorussia. Lithuania had unified to stop Livonian and Teutonic Knights.
Bosnia got Hercegovina from Serbia.
Council of Ten began rule.
League defeated Waldemar IV, king of Denmark, and Magnus VII, king of Norway and Sweden, to control trade in north Europe. Albert of Mecklenburg replaced Magnus VII and his son Haakon VI in Norway and Sweden.
Elected-for-life dukes {doge} ruled Genoa.
Burgundy took Flanders.
Bohemia ruled part of Hungary.
Poland ruled part of Hungary.
Switzerland confederation expelled Hapsburgs.
Nation became kingdom. Landowners {boyar} ruled serfs.
The pope declared Milan a duchy.
Nation started after Queen Margaret of Denmark defeated Sweden and put Eric of Pomerania on Swedish throne. Sture family ruled behind throne, when Margaret of Denmark's son ruled all three kingdoms, including Iceland.
Guelph city defeated Pisa, Ghibelline city, and smaller cities.
Merchants formed bank to finance voyages and commerce.
Nation explored west coast of Africa.
King of Aragon got Kingdom of Naples.
First slave market for African slaves began. By 1500, Portugal had taken 150,000 slaves.
Nation became kingdom, including Bessarabia and Bukovina.
Nation fought with France and Milan, had civil strife, and lost all colonies by 1500.
Nation declined after fighting Ottomans.
Austria became grand duchy.
Kings of Hungary began rule of Bohemia.
Ivan III freed it from Mongols or Tatars.
Savonarola was religious reformer, expelled Medici, and got Charles VIII of Spain to invade Italy. Florence hanged him after riots.
Different leaders ruled during Italian Wars.
Switzerland provinces became free of Holy Roman Empire.
Finland became grand duchy.
Spain took over.
Portugal discovered Indonesia and Indochina and ruled, because native empires were no longer powerful.
Portugal took Ethiopia.
Portugal, Holland, Britain, and France colonized Africa.
Dukes of Muscovy defeated Lithuania.
Della Rovere dukes led Urbino.
Portugal explored Pacific Ocean.
Henry VIII of England allied with France. Other kings were there.
Prussia became Protestant under Poland.
Silesia became Austrian province.
Spain took Milan [1535] in Italian Wars.
Palace of Escorial built.
Sweden took Livonia (Estonia) from Livonian Knights.
Nation fought for independence from Spain.
Cosimo I or Cosimo de Medici became Duke of Tuscany through pope's order. Florence was at wealthiest.
Polish and Lithuanian kingdoms merged.
Nation participated in Battle of Lepanto, stopping Ottoman Empire in Mediterranean.
Jagiello Dynasty ended by election as diet got strong powers.
Duke of Guise led League, which opposed Henry III.
Holland and northern provinces of Utrecht, Artois, Zeeland, and Friesland united.
Holland and northern provinces declared independence from Spain, as they fought Spain.
Emperors received crown at Frankfurt, with no pope.
Hapsburgs controlled it.
Americas exported potatoes to England.
United States established a standing army. Before that, armies assembled only in war.
East and West Indies Companies of United Provinces built trade and colonial empire. Jews and Huguenots took refuge. House of Orange was stadholder and alternated rule with republicans.
Austria took over.
Cromwell dissolved Rump Parliament, formed Barebones Parliament, and established Protectorate. He tried to form league of Protestant nations. When he passed Navigation Act, first Dutch War started. The struggle for foreign trade led to war with Spain.
Elector of Brandenburg freed Prussia from Poland.
Russia gained Ruthenia.
Hapsburgs of Austria and Holy Roman Empire got east Hungary from Ottoman Empire after Poland helped lift siege of Vienna.
Hungary regained Croatia.
France took over.
Greek Phanariot governors {hospodar} ruled province of Ottoman Empire from Constantinople.
Greek Phanariot governors from Constantinople ruled province of Ottoman Empire.
Nation began when Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenburg crowned himself king, as Frederick I, and united Brandenburg and Duchy of Prussia.
Russia took Livonia.
Austria took Milan.
Nation lost Greek islands to Ottoman Empire.
Quadruple Alliance of England, France, Austria, and Germany formed against Spain to prevent takeover of Italy.
Hats wanted to fight Russia. Caps wanted to negotiate with Russia. The factions struggled.
Hapsburgs became dukes of Tuscany.
Frederick II fought War of the Austrian Succession and gained Silesia, fought Seven Years War, gained west Poland and west Prussia in first Polish partition, and fought War of the Bavarian Succession.
Russia took Moldavia and Wallachia from Ottoman Empire.
Russia defeated Ottoman fleet and controlled to Dniester River and Black Sea.
Paris Commune began governing Paris. National Guard formed under Marquis de Lafayette.
King Louis XV called Estates General, to change finances. Led by the people and merchants {third estate}, it declared itself National Assembly and took Oath of the Tennis Court to write constitution. King agreed, then dismissed the minister Necker, and then reinstated him.
Assembly ended rights of nobles. Mob went to Versailles and took king and National Assembly to Paris.
In Legislative Assembly, Girondists were moderate, Jacobins were moderates under Lafayette and Mirabeau, and Cordeliers were radicals under Danton and Desmoulins.
It executed Louis XVI and his queen Marie Antoinette. French Revolutionary calendar began. Vendée royalists and provincials revolted. Reign of Terror began. Convention expelled Girondists. Jacobins became powerful and radical under Robespierre and Saint-Just. They eliminated the radical Cordeliers Marat, Hébert, and Danton. Revolutionary Tribunal and Committee of Public Safety used guillotine freely.
New constitution founded Directory.
National Convention stopped Robespierre.
Napoleon and French took Milan in French Revolutionary Wars.
Prussia lost in French Revolutionary Wars.
Napoleon and French took Venice peacefully, ending independence.
Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew Directory and started the Consulate, with himself as First Consul, to combat inflation, bankruptcy, and corruption.
Individual plates, knives, spoons, and forks became common {table manners}.
French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleon's conquests created state of Austria, ending Holy Roman Empire.
Napoleon created Duchy of Warsaw, ruled by Saxony.
Napoleon started confederation after he defeated Prussia and Brandenburg, and it included Bavaria, Wurtemburg, Saxony, Westphalia, and Baden. Legislature later consolidated smaller German states.
France occupied Portugal.
Prussia had to settle for Treaty of Tilsit and then reformed society and military.
France took Croatia.
Netherlands became part of France.
Napoleon and his Grande Armée of France lost in Russia. Russia got Bessarabia, which had been in Moravia and Turkey.
Russia and Rumania traded Bessarabia several more times.
Francis II and Metternich presided. Bourbon Restoration restored Louis XVIII as king of France. Talleyrand was his foreign minister. Austria got Lombardy, Venetia, and Galicia, so Austrian Empire was Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, south Poland, Lombardy, Venetia, Dalmatia, Galicia, and Kingdom of Hungary. Kingdom of Hungary had Croatia and Slovenia. Venetia is region near Venice.
German Confederation formed, with Prussia, Confederation of the Rhine states, German free cities, Austria, Holstein, Hanover, and Luxembourg. Austria controlled legislature {diet, assembly}. Prussia got west Prussia and Poznan.
Papal States stayed the same as before.
Bourbons ruled Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which included Sicily, Naples, and south Italy. Savoy, Genoa, and Sardinia became kingdom under Savoy line.
United Provinces or Holland and Austrian Netherlands or Belgium and Luxembourg merged into one kingdom. Kingdom of Poland or Congree-Poland was region around Warsaw. Cracow was republic. Denmark lost Norway. It guaranteed Switzerland confederation neutrality.
Nation joined German Confederation and formed German customs union {Zollverein}. It got Rhine land, Westphalia, part of Saxony, Pomerania, west Prussia, and west Poland at Congress of Vienna.
Conservative Party formed in Britain from former Tories.
Liberal Party formed in Britain from former Whigs.
Ottoman Empire put Moldavia under native ruler.
Ottoman Empire put Walachia under native ruler.
Serbia became principality under Ottoman Empire. Karageorgevich and Obrenovich factions struggled.
Society included Josiah Wedgwood, Matthew Boulton, and Erasmus Darwin.
Nation brought democracy to most cantons.
Chartist movement was to place People's Charter before Parliament.
Potato blight killed 1,000,000 in Ireland, and 1,500,000 people emigrated.
Germany and Austria fought Denmark over province of Schleswig-Holstein.
Federal constitution made.
Nation modified kingdom.
Republic formed after deposing Louis Philippe.
Nation became independent of Austria.
Nation began under Kossuth, but Austria and Russia stopped it.
Nation became independent of Austria but lost to Austria in August 1849.
Legislature was socialist.
Congress preceded revolt in Prague, which Hapsburgs of Austria defeated.
It freed serfs.
Austria ruled Croatia.
Nation formed after Revolution of 1848.
Legislature published a constitution for all of Germany and asked Frederick William IV to be king, but he said no. Prussians broke up German National Assembly in June 1849.
Nation had a constitution with Charles Albert as king. Sardinia under Garibaldi fought Austria. Austrian navy defeated Sardinians [March 1849], at Novara. Victor Emmanuel II became king.
Nation began, the pope left, and Rome under Garibaldi fought France until defeated by France in July 1849.
Nation seceded from Austria after new Austrian constitution, but Russia defeated Hungary in August 1849.
Danubian Principalities of Walachia and Moldavia (Romania) became independent, to settle conflict between Ottoman Empire and Russia.
James Stephens started movement for Irish independence.
Denmark lost Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia in war with Prussia and Austria. Denmark's farmers started cooperatives and became educated under Bishop Grundtvig.
Austro-Prussian War was for Schleswig-Holstein province. Prussia got Hanover, Nassau, Frankfurt, Hesse, and Schleswig-Holstein and formed North German Confederation.
Nation had 22 nations north of Main River.
Ottoman Empire left Serbia.
Nation reorganized Austrian Empire. Francis Joseph II continued to rule Austria until 1916. Slovakia, Ruthenia, Dalmatia, and Banat of Temesvar were under Austria-Hungary. Banat of Temesvar is between Yugoslavia and Romania. Czech, Serbia, Poland, Italy, and Romania continually caused unrest. Magyars controlled Hungary. Croatia had some freedom.
Hungary regained control of Croatia.
Italy gained Venetia from Austria at end of Austro-Prussian War.
League commercially joined the 22 North-German-Confederation nations plus Bavaria, Baden, Wurtemburg, and Hesse.
King Victor Emmanuel II annexed Rome.
Nation began by deposing King Napoleon III. It rebuilt France quickly and began colonization. Factions were royalists, military, republicans, and workers.
After defeating France, Prussia formed German Empire (Germany) [1871], under Bismarck. German Empire controlled German customs union (Zollverein).
Trade cycle had deep recession.
Italy colonized Libya, Somaliland, and Eritrea.
Nation began under Bismarck and Hohenzollern Prussian emperor Wilhelm I or William I. It included North German Confederation, Alsace and Lorraine, and Zollverien of Prussia. Legislature was Reichstag or diet.
Carlists revolted. King Amadeus abdicated. Republic formed.
Nation gained home rule from Norway.
Bosnia rebelled against Ottoman Empire.
Bulgaria, under Stanbulov, rebelled against Ottoman Empire.
Austro-Hungary and Germany allied to stop Pan-Slavism of Serbia, which Russia had encouraged.
Milan gained Serbia.
Austro-Hungary, Germany, and Italy allied against Pan-Slavism of Serbia. Cavour led Italy.
Luxembourg, under Duke Adolph of Nassau, gained home rule from Netherlands.
5,000,000 Jews were in Russia, Poland, and Lithuania, region called the Pale. World had 25,000,000 Jews in 1890.
Russia tightened rule of Finland.
Russia and France allied.
German law became code.
Conference established war conventions ratified by most nations.
Under Arthur Griffith, Sinn Fein replaced Home Rule party.
Moderately democratic-socialist party elected first Parliament members.
Kulaks owned free farms and increased grain production, but Ottoman Empire controlled Bosphorus, blocking Russian grain exports through Black Sea.
Italy attacked Ottoman Empire to take land in north Africa.
Nation left Ottoman Empire and became independent kingdom under William, prince of Wied.
It became independent of Denmark.
It became independent of Austria.
War ended in Bulgaria.
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes became independent of Austria [1918 to 1941] until invaded in World War II.
Hapsburg rule ended.
Nation signed armistice.
Social Democrats in Reichstag parliament deposed Kaiser William II of German Empire.
It became independent of Austria.
Nation formed under Pilsudski, with boundaries similar to those of 1772, including Polish Corridor along Vistula River to Baltic Sea and Upper Silesia.
In other countries, some communists sided with Russia and others were against Russia.
Finland under Mannerheim became independent from Russia, after Civil War with Russia.
Hindenburg brought army back to Germany under control and prevented radical revolution.
Junkers or wealthy industrialists controlled it. Stresemann was foreign minister. Economy had recovered from World War I by 1925. At end, President Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as chancellor.
Bulgaria lost territory. Stambuliski, then military dictatorships, led it.
Admiral Nagybanya was regent.
Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia opposed Hungary.
Ireland became free of England.
Irish Free State became dominion of England. England confiscated all land.
Soviet government organized, under Lenin, into 15 republics. In west were Great Russia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belorussia or White Russia, Ukraine, and Moldavia or Bessarabia. In south were Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan in Transcaucasia. In east were Kazakh, Turkoman, Uzbek, Tadzhik, and Kirghiz. New Economic Policy started.
Nazis believed that Germans should unite to take eastern lands back from other peoples, German peoples were superior, and Marxists and Jews were bad.
Republic began after deposing George II.
Act replaced Lenin's New Economic Policy, controlled churches, emphasized Russia, emphasized industrialization, emphasized literacy and education, emphasized health, supported poor, and freed women. All farms were collective {kolkhoz} or state {sovkhoz}. It did not allow free farmers {kulak}. By 1935, army and secret police had killed 5,000,000 peasants and kulaks. Nation had army and politician purges.
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes became dictatorship under Alexander I.
Nation became dictatorship.
King's son founded Falange or fascist and nationalist party.
Nation became dictatorship when National Socialists allied with some clergy and fascists to make one-party corporate state under Chancellor Dollfuss, who suppressed Socialists. After Dollfuss, Schuschnigg became dictator.
Nation became dictatorship when military junta ruled after Pilsudski died.
Eire formed in Ireland.
Italy occupied Albania.
Germany occupied Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, leaving Slovakia free.
Germany occupied Greece.
Nation became dictatorship when Franco created fascist state after Falange defeated Republic. Spain was neutral in World War II.
Germany took rest of Czechoslovakia.
Charles de Gaulle organized Free French resistance during World War II.
Germany formed Vichy government under Henri Petain in south France, but Germany controlled north France itself.
Nation became dictatorship after Germany invaded.
Nation became dictatorship after Germany invaded and Quisling led puppet government.
Italy deposed Mussolini, lost Sicily and African colonies, and surrendered to Allies. It then helped Allies.
Nation became republic.
Allies gave east Poland to Russia. United Nations charter advanced.
Allies gave east Germany to Poland, divided Germany into four sectors, and authorized war trials.
Czechoslovakia formed, but Russia got Ruthenia.
Nation became Communist under Enver Hoxha.
Nation became Communist.
France entered NATO.
Nation became republic again.
Winston Churchill spoke about Iron Curtain across Europe.
Allies occupied Germany.
Russia set up Cominform and Comecon for eastern European Communist nations, to counter NATO.
Nation became Communist.
Nation became Communist.
Nation became Communist.
Yugoslavia broke with Cominform and established market socialism.
Nation became Communist through coup.
Republic of Ireland formed.
West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) began.
East Germany (German Democratic Republic) began.
About coal and steel, it included Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and West Germany.
Greece joined NATO.
After 10 years of occupation, Germany entered NATO.
Community included Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and West Germany.
Italy joined NATO.
Nation formed under Charles De Gaulle, with new constitution with strong President. He gave Algeria independence and fixed finances.
Albania allied with Communist China.
Communist China and Russia split, and Russia withdrew help to China.
Greece joined.
Military junta ruled.
Salazar died in Portugal, and democracy returned.
Borders opened to fleeing East Germans.
Romania killed dictator.
Nation reformed.
Nation became independent of Russia.
Christian Democrats won election in East Germany, and East Germany unified with West Germany.
Nation became independent of Russia.
Nation became independent of Russia.
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in Russia split, and republics acted independently.
Boris Yeltsin, Russian-Republic leader, thwarted army government-takeover attempt. USSR disbanded in favor of Commonwealth of Independent States.
Nation became independent of Russia.
Homo erectus population was 100,000 to 400,000.
Homo erectus population was 1,000,000.
Neanderthal population was 1000 to 100,000. Fire use began.
Population was 1,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.
Population was 3,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.
Population was 5,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.
Population was 5,000,000 to 10,000,000 people.
Population was 80,000,000 to 90,000,000 people.
Birth rate increased greatly.
India had 25,000,000 people. Aryans were in north, above Deccan Peninsula. Dravidians were in south and in Vindhya hills and jungles.
130,000,000 people were alive. 20,000,000 people were in Africa, which had no plow, few horses, and slash-and-burn farming.
Population was 425,000,000. China had 100,000,000. Europe had 80,000,000. France had 16,000,000. Mexico had 5,000,000. South America had 9,000,000. USA and Canada had 1,000,000.
Population was 550,000,000.
Population was 700,000,000. 2,000,000 people were in North America. 6,000,000 people were in England.
Population was 900,000,000. Europe had 185,000,000. China had 300,000,000. Japan had 28,000,000. USA had 7,000,000, with 700,000 blacks. India had 175,000,000.
Population was 1,600,000,000. China had 475,000,000. Japan had 45,000,000. India had 300,000,000. USA had 76,000,000. Canada had 6,000,000. Africa had 110,000,000. Latin America had 75,000,000. Europe had 400,000,000. 50,000,000 had emigrated already at 1,000,000 a year. London had 7,000,000. Berlin had 2,000,000. Vienna had 2,000,000.
Population was 2,400,000,000. Central and South America had 100,000,000.
Population was 6,500,000. Central and South America had 500,000,000. USA had 285,000,000. China had 1,200,000,000. India had 1,000,000,000. Africa had 700,000,000.
Rulers are presidents, ministers, kings, and emperors.
He lived 330 to 356, was ruler of Axum, and became Christian.
He lived ? to 793, was Arab chief, took Morocco, and started Idrisid Dynasty [789 to 926]. He preceded Idris II [809], who lived 793 to 828.
He lived 1190 to 1255, took Kumbi in Ghana, and then lost to Mali and Malinke under Sundiata Keita [1235]. He was last Susu or Sosso king of Kante dynasty.
He lived 1217 to 1255, was king of Keita, revolted against Ghana [1230 to 1235], and founded new West African kingdom in Mali [1235]. It was much larger then Ghana and controlled south-Sahara caravan-trade centers, such as Timbuktu and Gao. He converted to Islam. Sunjata was a Mande poet.
He lived 1280 to 1337, was Muslim, and had a tolerant legal system.
He was Christian and built monasteries.
He lived ? to 1492, ruled Songhai, and took east Mali to make Songhai Empire. He took trade centers Timbuktu and Jenne in Mali. Capital was at Gao. Having overrun much of Mali, he aimed to preserve best features and develop them under better management. His son succeeded him, but his general Askia Mohammed Turré soon took over.
He lived 1430 to 1506 and became Christian [1491] when Portuguese arrived.
He ruled Songhai Empire as it expanded.
He lived 1456 to 1542, ruled Kongo kingdom in central Africa, was Christian, and allied with Portugal.
In southeast Africa, he united Zulu tribes to make a Zulu kingdom (Mtetwa Empire) and taught Shaka Zulu.
He lived 1844 to 1913 and became king with Italy's help.
He lived 1894 to 1975 and started reforms in 1930s but then retrenched. Italy forced him to leave [1936], but he became king again [1941]. He united with Eritrea [1962]. Marxists deposed him [1974] and he died [1975].
He lived 1356 to 1396 and was first Aztec emperor {tlatoani} (one who speaks) at Tenochtitlán. Aztecs used Nahuatl language.
He lived 1347 to 1400 and was eighth Inca ruler. As previous rulers had done, he used the name Sapa Inca (the unique Inca), but he also changed his name to supreme god's name, Viracocha Inca. He took neighboring lands and allied with other rulers. He gave army, government, and religious jobs to his family or his associates. People entering his presence bowed, wore no shoes, and carried packs on their backs. Inca myth said he traveled to Pacific and never returned.
Aztec king allied with Texcoco and Tlacopan, and they defeated Tapanecs. Aztecs had trade caravans controlled by guild {pochteca}. They built pyramids, palaces, and temples. Main temple was at Tenochtitlan. It had up to 20,000 sacrifices a day.
Yupanqui was Viracocha Inca's son and choose the name Pachacuti. He defeated nearby state that invaded, reformed government, and expanded north to Ecuador. Fortress was at Cuzco.
He lived ? to 1471 and was Inca emperor [1438 to 1471]. Incas built roads and buildings using shaped and fitted stone blocks. Machu Picchu is northwest of Cuzcoa and is high in mountains, with stepped streets and agricultural terraces.
He lived 1398 to 1469. Aztecs defeated other lake cities and took east Mexico.
He was Inca emperor [1471 to 1493], was Pachacuti's son, and was Huayna Capac's father.
He lived 1440 to 1493 and took Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina as commander [1463 to 1471].
He ruled Aztec Empire.
He ruled at Aztec height.
Huayna Capac led Inca Empire at greatest extent.
He was Inca emperor [1493 to 1527], was Tupac's son, and was father of Huascar, Atahualpa, Manco Inca Yupanqui, and Pawllu Inca.
He lived 1466 to 1520 and lost to Cortez from Spain.
He lived 1516 to 1544 and was last Inca emperor [1534 to 1537].
As Lone Pine tribe chief, he created Iroquois Confederation of Native American tribes in northeast USA and so became Onondaga and Mohawk chief.
He lived 1720 to 1769, was Ottawa chief in north-central USA, and led Pontiac's Rebellion [1763 to 1766].
He lived 1768 to 1813 and was Shawnee chief.
He lived 1770 to 1843 and developed syllabic alphabet for Cherokee language.
He lived 1798 to 1831, declared independence from Portugal, and was John VI of Portugal's son.
He lived 1783 to 1824.
He lived 1825 to 1889 and became king after his father, Pedro I, abdicated. He later fought Argentina and Paraguay.
He lived 1832 to 1867. Napoleon III sent him to aid Mexican conservatives against Juarez. Someone killed him after French soldiers left. He was brother of Francis Joseph II of Austria.
He lived 1829 to 1909, led Bedonkohe band of Apache, was Apache chief, and fought USA army in Arizona until he surrendered [1886], ending wars against Native Americans.
Joseph lived 1840 to 1904, was Nez Perce chief, and surrendered to USA [1877].
He founded Au Viet dynasty.
He founded Japan and explored Inland Sea [-607] from Hyuga to Yamato.
He lived -340 to -293, acquired Magadha kingdom [-325], defeated Nanda dynasty [-321], married clan princess to form Gupta or Maurya dynasty [-321 to -293], and defeated Seleucus I [-305].
He lived -325 to -296 and founded Mauryan Empire when he conquered Magadha Kingdom, had strong central government, and had strong army. He defeated invasion by Seleucus [-305]. Maurya Empire conquered part of south India.
He lived -320 to -272. Maurya Empire extended to Madras.
He lived -290 to -232 and ruled Maurya Empire at greatest extent, because he conquered all India, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Ceylon, Nepal, and Kashmir. He defeated Kalinya Empire [-265] and then warred no more. He then promoted religious tolerance, non-violence, and personal dignity.
He became Buddhist [-255] and established Buddhism as state religion. He built 80,000 stupas and many monasteries. He tried to restore discipline to the monks. He emphasized charity, self-command, and self-control. Buddhist missionaries went to Burma and Ceylon [-240]. He started the idea of heavenly salvation for good behavior {svarga} in Buddhism. After he died, Buddhism died out in north India.
He increased trade, planted banyan trees, and built roads, reservoirs, wells, and inns.
Literature had Mahabharata, including Bhagavadgita, and Ramayana.
He founded Qin or Ch'in or Ts'in dynasty. As king of Ch'in in Senshi Province, he subdued six other kingdoms and united China. Shih Hwang-ti or Shi Huang-di means first emperor. Hsien Yang was capital. He built first Great Wall of China, 1500 miles long, in north and northwest. He centralized government, set up bureaucracy, forced nobles to live at capital, and redistributed land to peasants. He stopped crime and enforced laws with strong army. He unified measures and currency. He standardized Chinese characters. His tomb was near Lin Tung. His death started civil war.
He lived -156 to -87, took Central Asia's Tarim Basin, south Manchuria, and southeast China, and founded Early Han or Former Han or Western Han. Silk Road began.
He lived -45 to -23, seized power in Han dynasty when regent, and started Hsin court.
He was king of Kushan and ruled north India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and central Asia. He converted to Buddhism. Kushana kingdom was in Gandhara, Punjab, and Sind.
He lived 236 to 290, united China after Han dynasty ended, and started Western Chin dynasty [265 to 317].
He sent embassy to Gupta court [360], which built religious monument for them.
He was of Gupta dynasty. Gupta Empire covered north India.
He united China and founded Sui Dynasty [581 to 604].
He lived 590 to 647, defeated White Huns, and restored Hinduism.
He was of Tang Dynasty.
He lived 792 to 850 and declared independence of Java [802], founding Khmer Empire.
He became Japanese emperor at age nine or ten. He removed his opponents [866] and became regent {sessho}.
He became Chola Empire king and defeated Chera of Kerala in south India.
He became Chola Empire king. His merchant fleets traded, and his navy controlled trade between Arabia and China.
He built large empire with strong army and unified Burma. Pagan was capital.
He started building temples at Angkor Wat.
He defeated last Ghaznavid and founded Muslim empire in north India.
He lived 1163 to 1227. He became Mongol king {Great Khan} to begin Mongol Empire. He captured Zhongdu (Peking or Beijing) and defeated Ch'in Empire of China [1215]. He conquered Transoxania, Turkestan, Afghanistan, south Russia, and southeast Europe [1227]. He placed conquered peoples in army, used Turkish alphabet for Mongol language, and used Chinese tax system to collect tribute.
He was Genghis Khan's son and became khan at his death.
He lived 1215 to 1294. Nobles elected him Great Khan [1260]. He defeated Sung Dynasty [1279] and founded Yuan Dynasty in China. He failed to conquer Japan, Indonesia, and southeast Asia.
Nobles elected Tughlug, Turkish general, sultan, and he founded Tughluq dynasty. His son Mohammed murdered him.
He killed his father and expanded Tughluq Empire, but he caused provincial revolts.
He lived 1336 to 1405. Descendant of Genghis Khan, he first ruled Samarkand. Using horsemen, he conquered Persia [1379], Iraq, Syria, and Afghanistan and established Timurid Empire. He invaded south Russia [1395]. He invaded India [1397] and Tughluq Empire, sacked Delhi [1398], and killed most people. He died on way to China [1405].
He was governor [1391], became independent of Delhi Sultanate [1401], and founded Gujarat Dynasty.
He lived 1360 to 1424 and was first Ming emperor. Nanking was first Ming capital.
Of Gujarat Dynasty, he started Muzaffarid Dynasty, was Zafar Khan's grandson, and built Ahmadabad as capital. His soldiers received half cash and half land plots.
He lived 1397 to 1450, was relative of Yi Song-gye, and started official Korean script, Han'gul. He ended Japanese piracy.
He lived 1431 to 1488, and reformed laws. He had military and civilian divisions, with departments for local government, finance, and law. Siamese society had classes, and all people had land. He fought wars with northern states. He moved capital north to P'itsanulok. He appointed his son "second king".
He ruled Delhi, annexed Bihar [1492], moved capital to Agra, and invaded Rajastan.
He lived 1483 to 1530 and was descendant of Tamerlane and Chingis Khan. He founded Mogul or Moghul Empire [1504] when he took Delhi and killed Sultan of Delhi Sultanate. He defeated Hindu kingdoms down to Bihar. He invaded India [1525]. He brought grapes, melons, bananas, and sugar cane to Pakistan. He liked poetry.
He lived 1512 to 1550, was of Toungoo dynasty [1531 to 1550], took Pegu from Mons [1546], and became king of Burma.
From Burma, he took Thailand.
He lived 1542 to 1605. Mogul Empire took Afghanistan and rest of north India. Agra was capital. He reformed government, allowed religious tolerance, and started land tax. He married the Rajputana Hindu king's daughter. Urdu language started, which was Hindi language with Turkish and Persian words.
He lived 1534 to 1582. Ashikaga shogunate defeated all rival barons. He took Kyoto and unified Japan {National Unification period}.
He lived 1563 to 1620. Empire had painting and porcelain making.
He lived 1627 to 1680 and started Maratha kingdom [1674]. Mahrattas from west-central India established capital at Poona and conquered part of Mogul Empire [1655 to 1674].
With Afghans, he defeated Sultan Hossein, ending Safavid Dynasty in Persia and starting Ghilzay Afghan dynasty [1722 to 1730].
He was of Manchu family and controlled north to Amur River and south to Indochina.
He lived 1711 to 1760, defeated Mons of Burma, raided India, and started Alaungpaya dynasty or Konbaung dynasty.
Shogun had surrendered to Perry. In Meiji Restoration [1868], clans took capital, Kyoto, from shogun. Mutsuhito lived 1852 to 1912 and ruled Japan [1873 to 1912]. Capital moved to Edo (Tokyo). Emperor owned all land. Government had prefectures. Conscription built army. Clans industrialized and built ships, weapons, and cotton mills. They studied navigation and other western techniques.
He lived 1871 to 1908. Of Ch'ing dynasty, he tried to reform China with Hundred Days reform [1898], but Tz'u Hsi blocked reform, forced his resignation [1908], and became empress.
He lived 1901 to 1989. Army controlled him until after World War II. Constitution [1947] took away all his powers, except for symbolism.
He was king in south Egypt and united north (Lower Egypt) and south (Upper Egypt), beginning the 1st Dynasty. He founded Memphis as capital in Lower Egypt. The pharaoh became like god.
Uruk is in Iraq.
He founded IV Dynasty and built Great Pyramid at Giza.
He began Akkadian or Old Assyrian Empire by conquering Sumer city-states in south Mesopotamia.
He and his son ruled Amorites or Gutians.
In legends, she associated with king Ninus, legendary founder of Nineveh. Perhaps, she was Shammuramat of Babylon, wife of Shamshi-Adad V [-811 to -808].
He lived -1792 to -1750. He started First Babylonian Empire. He conquered Sumer and Akkad. His capital was at Babylon. By myth, Sun god gave laws to Hammurabi. Code of Hammurabi first codified existing laws. 282 articles were about wages, fees, divorces, slaves, and practical affairs. Code had first law of maximum retaliation, limiting revenge to no more than original harm.
As Hittite king, he took Babylon.
He defeated Hyskos and started New Kingdom. He took Nubia and Canaan, Palestine.
She lived ? to -1458 and was of XVIII dynasty. She was Thutmose I's eldest daughter. Her half-brother Thutmose II married her and was pharaoh [-1495 to -1490], and then she was regent to Thutmose III. She became pharaoh [-1479 to -1458]. She built temple at Deir el-Bahari in Thebes.
After Queen Hatsheput had become pharaoh, Thotmes III conquered to Euphrates River and Levant, including south Canaan, Syria, and Palestine, but not Mitanni in east Syria and north Mesopotamia.
In 18th Dynasty, empire was at maximum size. Thebes was capital. His statues are at Thebes and are Colossi of Memnon. Memnon was an Ethiopian hero of the Greeks.
He became Hittite king.
He tried to institute monotheism based on the god of the Sun {Aton}. Sun-god temple was at the new capital Amarna or Tel-el-Amarna, 300 miles south of Thebes. He changed Egyptian life drastically. The priests of Amon opposed him. He had bad economy and lost all foreign lands. His queen was Nefertiti or Nefretete.
He restored polytheistic religion. Thebes became capital again.
In 19th Dynasty, he fought Hittites. Empire went from fourth cataract of Nile River to Syria. Temples were at Karnak, Thebes, and Abu-Simbel.
As Hittite king, he lost to Ramses II but kept north Syria.
In 20th Dynasty, he fought Syria and Libya, reunited kingdom, and lived in luxury with the nobles. Harem intrigue killed him.
He became first king of Israel, was first defeated by Philistines, and then defeated them.
He defeated Philistines, conquered all of Canaan, and unified Hebrews. Jerusalem was capital. In the Bible, he fought the giant Goliath for Saul, became king of Israel after Saul, loved Bathsheba, and wrote Psalms.
Aramaic Edomites became independent. He rebuilt Jerusalem.
He started late Assyrian civilization.
Samaria was capital.
He married the Phoenician Jezebel, so Baal became worshiped, not Yahweh. The prophet Elijah was against him.
Elijah helped him, and he restored worship of Yahweh.
He began New Assyrian Empire by conquering to Mediterranean.
Kingdom of Judah worshiped Baal, not Yahweh. He killed descendants of former kings.
New Assyrian Empire took Syria and Palestine.
New Assyrian Empire took Babylonia, Media, and Syria.
He was king of Judah.
New Assyrian Empire took Samaria [-722], Carcemish, Babylon, and west Kurdistan. He built Khorsabad as capital. He conquered Israel [-720].
New Assyrian Empire destroyed Babylon [-689]. He also defeated Egypt [-690], Cyprus, Cilicia, and Syria and exacted tribute from Jerusalem. He built capital at Nineveh.
He lived -710 to -664.
New Assyrian Empire defeated Chaldeans and took control in Egypt [-673 to -670].
He took Elam [-646] and destroyed Thebes, Egypt. New Assyrian Empire was at height of learning, art, and power. He had famous library.
He lived -684 to -610, started Saite Dynasty, and took Syrtis and Cyrene in Libya and Salamis in Cyprus.
She lived -686 to -656.
He was Chaldean, conquered Assyria at Nineveh [-612], and started New Babylonian Empire. His son, Nebuchadnezzar II, defeated Egyptians at Carchemish, Syria [-605].
He lived -630 to -561. Saite Dynasty rebuilt canal from Nile to Arabian Gulf. He defeated Assyrians [-609]. He lost to Babylonians [-588].
He lived -630 to -562. Second Babylonian Empire defeated Egypt under Necho [-588]. It then defeated revolt in Judah [-587 to -586] and took Jews into captivity in Babylon (Babylonian Captivity). It also conquered Elam and Achaemenids. He rebuilt temple to Marduk and enlarged Tower of Babel.
He lived -595 to -546. Lydia included Pisidia and Lycia in southwest Asia Minor and was at maximum power and wealth. He resisted Medes. He ruled until overthrown by Persia under Cyrus the Great.
He lived -600 to -529, founded Persian Empire, and captured Babylon [-539]. He freed Jews. His capital was at Pasargadae. He established Achaemenid Dynasty and Persian Empire and conquered Medea [-549], Lydia, Babylonia, and Egypt [-525]. He restored Jews to Palestine and rebuilt temple for third time. He respected local customs and governments and only wanted tribute. He tried to take Hindu Kush but Scythians killed him [-529].
He lived -558 to -521, was Cyrus's son, and took Egypt from Assyria [-525].
He lived -550 to -486. Achaemenid Dynasty of Persian Empire built Persepolis, fought Scythians, and conquered to northwest India and Danube River. Army, police, and satrap governors responsible only to king ruled the 20 provinces {satrapy}. He improved government and communication and tried to build highway from Ephesus to Susa. Ionian cities in Asia Minor revolted [-499] but lost. He attacked mainland Greece by navy but lost [-490], and then lost to Greek army at Marathon [-490].
He lived -519 to -465. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he was Darius I's son. He defeated Egypt. He invaded Greece by building bridge over Hellespont channel. He won at Thermopylae [-480], sacked Athens [-480], lost his fleet at Salamis [-480], and went back to Persia. His army lost at Plataea and his fleet burned at Mycale on same day [-479].
He lived -483 to -424. Achaemenid Dynasty of Persian Empire became weak by wars with Greece, Egypt, and Bactria.
He lived -456 to -358. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he defeated Cyrus the Younger in civil war and ruled Persian Empire. Persia and Sparta negotiated Treaty of Antalcidas [-386].
He lived ? to -338. Of Achaemenid Dynasty, he massacred his family to rule Persian Empire. He defeated Egypt.
He lived -380 to -330 and lost to Alexander the Great at Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela, ending Achaemenid Dynasty and Persian Empire.
He lived -367 to -282 and was general for Alexander the Great of Macedonia. He moved capital to Alexandria [-305]. He built library [-305]. He ruled with his son [-285 to -282].
He lived -358 to -281, was one of Alexander's generals, and began Seleucid Dynasty. He received Babylonia after Alexander the Great's death. He fought to Indus River in India. He won at Ipsus against Antigonus I of Macedon and later defeated Lysimachus of Macedon in Wars of the Diadochi.
He lived -309 to -246. Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty built library at Alexandria and fought Syria.
From central Asia, he led Parni branch of Dahae and founded Parthian kingdom in east Persia, which became Parthian Empire.
He lived -280 to -221. Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty fought Syria and controlled Asia Minor and Greek coast.
He lived -242 to -187, was Seleucid, and took Judea [-198].
He lived -243 to -205 and was of Ptolemaic, Macedonian, Lagid, or XXXI Dynasty.
He lived -215 to -164. Seleucids tried to stop Maccabees in Judaea. Rome blocked Seleucid invasion of Egypt.
He lived -200 to -138 and was Parthian emperor. He conquered from Caspian Sea to Persian Gulf to border of India [-160 to -140].
He lived ? to -104 and left Pharisees to become Sadducee [-120].
He lived ? to -30 and was Judea high priest [-76 to -40]. Rome took Judea, and Hyrcanus II, a Maccabee, was puppet ruler [-63 to -40].
She lived -69 to -30. She was of Ptolemaic Dynasty. Julius Caesar and Marc Anthony loved her. After she and Marc Anthony lost at Actium, she killed herself using asp.
He lived -73 to -4, was Hyrcanus's half-Jewish minister, and ruled for Rome. He built Masada [-30] by Dead Sea as fortress towering 1300 feet. He murdered rabbis. According to the Bible, he massacred children [-4].
He lived -20 to 40. According to the Bible, he executed John the Baptist and brought his head on a platter when Salome asked for it. He was Herod the Great's son.
He started Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty when people of Fars revolted against Parthians. He, noble soldier, killed last Parthian king [226]. He reunited Persia. Sasan was his ancestor.
He lived 224 to 272 and was Ardashir's son. He defeated and captured Roman Emperor Valerian [260], captured Armenia, and invaded Syria and Cappadocia. He started to build at Ctesiphon.
He lived 256 to 190 and was of Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty.
He lived 309 to 379 and fought Roman Empire [337 to 363]. Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty defeated Constantius II and Julian the Apostate of east Roman Empire [363]. There was high prosperity.
He lived 346 to 395. East Roman Empire negotiated peace with Visigoths. He invaded Italy and reunited East and West Roman Empires, for last time. People in west left cities for farms, army had mercenaries, and government raised taxes. He put down rebellion in Salonica. He ended Trinity doctrine of Arius, by force and by first Council of Constantinople, and forbade paganism.
He lived 401 to 450, was emperor [408 to 450], was Arcadius's and Aelia Eudoxia's son, and built protective walls around Constantinople [412]. He issued Law of Citations [438]. Theodosius I lived 346 to 395 and was emperor [379 to 395].
As king of Aksum or Axum [520 to 570], he conquered Yemen [525] in south Arabia and built churches.
He lived 482 to 565, was Illyrian, and was emperor of Byzantine Empire [527 to 565]. His generals Belisarius and Narses conquered Vandal Kingdom in Africa and Italy. Ravenna, Italy, became capital. They subdued Ostrogoths and took south part, up to Cordoba, of Visigothic Kingdom in Spain. He fought Khosru I of Sassanid Empire in east and controlled Egypt and Levant.
Burgundian Kingdom was in south France. Frankish Kingdom was in north France. Celts were in Britain. Lombards were north of Greece. Slavs were north of Lombards.
He codified Roman law. He closed the Academy.
Emperor became spiritual leader of Orthodox Church, together with bishops. He supported Orthodox Christians. He called second Council of Constantinople to unify church. He built Hagia Sophia or St. Sophia Church in Constantinople. He persecuted Jews, Coptic Christians of Egypt, and Nestorian Christians in east Syria.
Theodora was empress. She ended Nika riot over taxes and church doctrine.
In art, Christ had a ring {nimbus, light ring} of light, like sun god, around his head.
He fixed interest at 8% for business loans and 4% to 12% for other loans with average interest of 6% and set maximum interest equal to principal.
He was famous for generosity.
Of Sassanid or Sassanian Dynasty, he was Khosrow I's grandson and succeeded his father Hormizd or Hormoz [590], but Bahram Chubin forced him to flee to Byzantine Empire. Emperor Maurice of Byzantine Empire helped him regain throne, but got Armenia in return for his help. After Phocas murdered Maurice, Chosroes II took Armenia, Cappadocia, Syria, and Jerusalem [615]. He defeated White Huns. He took Egypt [616]. He next reached Constantinople [617]. Heraclius I of Byzantine Empire entered Assyria and Mesopotamia [627] and then his son murdered Chosroes II and became king as Kavadh II Shiruya.
He lived 575 to 641, led Byzantine Empire, was Armenian, defended Constantinople by defeating Avars on west [626], and took back Syria, Palestine, and Egypt from Persia [628].
He lived 573 to 634, was uncle of Ali, was one of the first converts to Islam, became first caliph [632], and subjugated all Arabia to start Moslem Empire [634].
Omar lived 581 to 644, was second caliph, set up administration, set up tax system, and started kadi office. Capital was Medina. He conquered Syria, Palestine, Middle East, Mesopotamia, and Persia [637] but not Byzantine Empire. He conquered Egypt [640 to 641]. He took north Africa [644]. He took Kabul [664].
He lived 574 to 656 and was third caliph of Moslem Empire.
He lived 598 to 661, was cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed, was Abu Bakr's nephew and Mohammad's cousin, was one of the first converts to Islam, and was fourth caliph. He married Fatima, Mohammad's daughter. In Sunni Islam, he was fourth and last Khulafa-i-Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs. In Shi'a Islam, he was the first imam and true caliph. His sons did not become caliph.
He lived 600 to 683 and started Omayyed Dynasty of caliphs. He assassinated Ali [661] and deposed Hassan and Hussein, sons of Ali. He then united most of Islam using diplomacy. He moved capital from Medina to Damascus. After he died, his son Muawiya II was caliph several months [683 to 684].
He lived 646 to 705, was fifth Omayyed caliph, was Sunni, and united Islam.
He was from Anatolia, allied Byzantine Empire with Khazars in south Russia, and controlled Anatolia.
He lived 718 to 775. Byzantine Empire controlled Balkans.
He lived 716 to 775 and was second Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire. Abbasid family was at al-Humaymah.
From Persia, they were viziers for Harun-al-Rashid until murdered.
He lived 764 to 809 and was fifth Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire. He was in the Arabian Nights. Barmacides, from Persia, were his viziers. After he died, his son al-Amin became caliph [809 to 813].
She lived 752 to 803.
He lived 786 to 833, was Harun-al-Rashid's son, and was Abbasid caliph of Moslem Empire, succeeding his brother al-Amin [813]. He established Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) library and academy. Baghdad had 500,000 people. Empire was at height of art and science. Decimal system came from India.
He lived 826 or 835 to 886 and started Macedonian Dynasty [867 to 1056]. Byzantine Empire fought Bulgars. He repaired finances and codified law.
He lived 835 to 884, was Egyptian noble from Turkey, rebelled from Abbasid caliphate, and started Tulunid dynasty [868 to 905] in Egypt.
He lived 957 to 1025 and became sole emperor [976]. He was Bulgaroctonus or Slayer of Bulgars. He confiscated great landowner estates and gave jobs to his followers. He fought Bulgar kingdom in Bulgaria under Tsar Samuel [990 to 1014] and won Battle of Balathista [1014]. He defeated Italy and Normandy [1018]. Byzantium controlled from Italy to Euphrates River in Iraq.
He started Ghaznavid dynasty, was son-in-law of Albtakin, and helped Samanians.
He lived 971 to 1030 and was Sabuktagin's son. He took all Samanian lands [999] and conquered into India. After his death 1030, Seljuk Turks threatened his empire and it gradually declined.
He was Fatimid.
Of Ghaznavid Dynasty, he was Mahmud's son. He lost to Seljuk Turks, but family still ruled east Afghanistan and west India.
He lived 990 to 1063 and led Seljuk Turks from central Asia [1038] to Persia [1040 to 1044] and Baghdad [1055], where he became sultan.
He lived 1029 to 1072 and was nephew of Tughril Beg and Seljuk Turk. He invaded Asia Minor [1065] and Armenia and defeated Byzantine army at Battle of Manzikert [1071].
He followed Alp Arsalen as sultan. Nezam-ol Molk or Nezamiya was vizier of Malekshah. Seljuk Turks or Sultanate of Rum controlled Middle East. Seljuk control of Holy Land was reason for Crusades.
He lived 1094 to 1163, took Marrakech [1147], conquered Algeria, Tripoli, and part of Spain [1163], and started the Almohads.
He lived 1138 to 1193, took Jerusalem [1173] and Damascus, and started Ayyubid dynasty [1173 to 1250]. With Saracens, he conquered Tunisia, Yemen, and Syria. He defeated Crusade at Hattin [1187]. He held Jerusalem through Third Crusade. He met Richard I of England.
He lived 1223 to 1277, was Turkish slave, and started Mameluke dynasty [1250 to 1517].
He lived 1225 to 1282, reunited Byzantine Empire as states of Nicaea, Trebizond, and Epirus, and started Palaeologan Dynasty [1261 to 1453].
He lived 1259 to 1326 and started Osmanli or Ottoman principality {beg} in northeast Turkey. He began Islamic law and government. As leader of Ottoman Turks or Osmanli Turks, he founded Ottoman Empire by taking Bursa [1317 to 1326], capital of Mongols in Asia Minor, using artillery. Bursa became Ottoman capital.
He lived 1360 to 1403. Ottoman Empire took east Anatolia [1396].
He lived 1429 to 1481, was sultan of Turkey, bombarded Constantinople for eight weeks, had 80,000 soldiers, and started Ottoman Empire [1453]. Emperor Constantine XI of Byzantine Empire died fighting [1453].
He was first Safavid, was Shia, and took Persia [1502].
He lived 1467 to 1520 and led Ottoman Empire at height. He defeated Persia and got Kurdistan, defeated Mamelukes in Syria and Egypt, killed many Shiite Moslems, and got Caliphate by taking over Mecca and Medina.
He lived 1514 to 1576. Safavids ruled Persia.
He lived 1571 to 1629, was Safavid, and moved capital from Ghazvin to Isfahan. Mullahs were powerful. He punished Sufis. He built the Medan town square in Isfahan and encouraged art. Shah means king.
He lived 1688 to 1747 and defeated Afghans [1729].
He lived 1742 to 1797 and began Qajar or Ghajar Dynasty.
He lived 1762 to 1834, was Qajar, lost Caucasia to Russia, and fought Afghans and Ottoman Empire. His son was Abbas Mirza, who wanted to reform but never ruled.
He lived 1789 to 1848 and was Muhammad 'Ali's son or adopted son. His father named him hereditary governor of Egypt. He led his father's armies against Wahhabite sect in Arabia [1816 to 1818].
He lived 1769 to 1849, became pasha under Ottoman Empire [1805], and defeated Mamelukes [1811]. He took Syria from Ottoman Empire [1833] and led revolts in Asia Minor [1838], which European armies suppressed.
He lived 1810 to 1848 and was Qajar.
He lived 1831 to 1896 and was Qajar. Amir Kabir was Premier [1848 to 1851].
He lived 1830 to 1895 and was Ibrahim Pasha's son. Debt caused him to allow France and Britain to take over Egyptian government. He sold Suez Canal [completed in 1869] to Britain [1876].
He lived 1822 to 1883 and published a constitution for Ottoman Empire [1876].
He lived 1874 to 1944.
He lived 1853 to 1907, was Qajar, and signed new constitution [1906].
He lived 1872 to 1925, was Qajar, and cancelled new constitution.
He lived 1898 to 1930, was Qajar, and revolted and defeated Mohammad-Ali Shah.
He lived 1885 to 1933.
He lived -1336 to -1327. Tomb opened [1922].
He lived 1868 to 1936.
He lived 1878 to 1944 and started Pahlavi Dynasty.
He lived 1880 to 1953. As king of Nejd, he took Hejaz region of Arabia [1925] and created Saudi Arabia [1932 to 1953].
He lived 1920 to 1965. Kingdom ended when Nasser began republic.
He lived 1935 to 1958.
He lived 1919 to 1980 and began rule when his father Reza Shah Pahlavi abdicated [1941], after Britain and Russia occupied Iran. He put down rival governments [1947]. He defeated Communists and overcame Premier Mossadegh [1953], with help from USA CIA. He started land and other reforms in White Revolution [1962 to 1963]. He fled Iran [1979], as Moslem clerics took power in peaceful revolution under Ayatollah Khomeini.
He lived 1936 to 1999.
He lived 1905 to 1975 and ended slavery and strong monarchy.
Cretan civilization had boxing, bull leaping, hunting, musicians, dancers, and board games.
By legend, he founded Rome.
He was legendary peaceful king.
He was Etruscan.
He built wall around city.
As chief of Senones, Adriatic coast Gauls, he defeated Rome in Battle of the Allia [-390] and took Rome.
He lived -382 to -336 and took Thrace's gold. He invented phalanx infantry formation using ten rows, with long pikes between preceding soldiers. He used armored cavalry charges and catapults. He conquered Athens at Chaeronea [-338]. He took Thebes [-335] and enslaved the people after rebellion. He died while preparing to attack Persia. His son was Alexander the Great.
He lived -356 to -323 and conquered whole Middle East. He died of typhoid fever in Babylon.
He lived -319 to -239, conquered Macedon [-276], and united Greece.
He lived -63 to 14 and was Julius Caesar's great nephew. Octavian controlled Persia, Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, Gaul, Lusitania or Portugal, and Spain and so consolidated Roman Empire [-31]. He became first emperor of Rome as Augustus [-27]. He imposed Pax Romana, had good administration, and encouraged arts.
He lived -42 to 37 and reformed finances of Roman Empire. Senate and Assembly lost all power.
He lived 12 to 41 and led Roman Empire.
He lived -10 to 54 and invaded Britain [43].
He lived 37 to 68, killed his mother, wife, cousin, and many Christians, and defeated many revolts against Roman Empire.
She lived 26 to 62, was Iceni queen, and rebelled against Rome [60].
He lived 9 to 79 and began Flavian line of Roman Empire. He constructed Forum [75] and began Colosseum. His son Titus finished Colosseum [80].
He lived 53 to 117, took Parthia and Dacia for Roman Empire, and built Roman Forum and Column of Trajan. Roman Empire was at greatest extent.
He lived 76 to 138 and was emperor [117 to 138]. Roman Empire was at greatest extent. He built walls in Germany and Britain. He set Roman east boundary at Euphrates River. He ordered Perpetual Edict.
He lived 86 to 161 and began Antonine Dynasty of Roman Empire. He was Stoic and noted for good administration.
He lived 121 to 180 and was second Antonine ruler of Roman Empire. He was Stoic and noted for good administration. People can try to understand universe order and goodness, accept consequences for themselves, and sympathize with and live harmoniously with others.
He lived 146 to 211 and was Libyan general. He built chain of forts and long ditches in north Africa. He was member of equestrian class, with army and administrative experience in Roman Empire. Emperor became absolute master, without preserving legal forms. The prefect became head of civil administration and judges in Rome. He devalued currency, gave power to army, set high taxes, and caused high inflation, which led to civil war, which he won, and to foreign wars, which he won with some losses.
All freeborn people in empire received Roman citizenship.
He codified many laws and led the five kings of Ulster, Leinster, Connaught, Meath, and Munster. His capital was at Tara.
He lived 214 to 275 and was from Illyria. He fought at Palmyra and defeated barbarians in Britain, Gaul, Spain, Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia. He reestablished Roman rule throughout empire. Someone murdered him at invasion of Persia.
He lived 245 to 305, was from Illyria, regained Britain, and defeated Persians and barbarians. He ruined Roman Empire economy by heavier taxes.
He reorganized the army of 500,000 men and used conscription.
He created smaller dioceses to replace larger provinces. He created four prefectures [285], called the Tetrarchy. They were Italy and Africa, Gaul and Spain, Greece and north, and Egypt and Asia. He divided empire along line from Danube to Dalmatia, with himself in eastern half {Eastern Empire}, which was richer and more populous. Maximian, general in Gaul, controlled west half [295]. Constantius and Galerius ruled subsections [292]. He persecuted Christians [303] for failure to worship emperor. Senate became only honorary.
He lived 274 to 337 and was Constantius' son. Army proclaimed him emperor of West Roman Empire [306], and civil war followed. Before battle [312], he added Christian symbol to shields. He became western emperor [312]. Later, he judged disputes between churches and built churches. He removed sun god from coins [320]. Sunday became holiday [321]. He reunited empire [324] and became emperor of east and west. He moved capital to Byzantium and called it Constantinople [330]. He had himself baptized when he died.
Christian centers were in Rome, Africa, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor.
He lived 317 to 340. Roman Empire stayed united.
Roman Empire stayed united.
He lived 370 to 410 and conquered Italy, Spain, and south Gaul, as Visigoths fled from Huns to Roman lands.
He lived 406 to 453 and led Huns during conquests. Ostrogoths lost to Huns under Attila and went westward [433]. Huns got tribute from Byzantine Empire and from tribes in central and east Europe. After he died, Huns settled in Hungary and Austria.
He was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.
He lived 450 to 505, was Ottar Vendilkraka's son, and was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.
He lived ? to 516, was king of Burgundy [473 to 516], was Patrician of Western Roman Empire [472 to 473], and issued short, unsystematic set of Roman laws [501 to 515].
He lived 454 to 526, was Ostrogoth king [474 to 526], and defeated Vandals under Odoacer several times in Italy [481] [484], starting Ostrogoth kingdom [493]. He believed in Arianism, which was contrary to Catholic orthodoxy, and had trouble with the pope.
He lived 466 to 511, was Salian Frank king [465 to 511], and united Franks, founding Merovingian Dynasty and Frankish Kingdom [481]. Capital was at Lutetia (Paris). Using stirrups for horses, he defeated Romans, Alemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths and ruled down to Loire River. Franks became Christian. He married Catholic princess of Burgundy and became Christian later. At his death, his sons got parts of his lands.
He lived ? to 507 and issued short, unsystematic set of Roman laws [506]. Clovis defeated Alaric II at Battle of Campus Vogladenis [507].
The legendary king lived at Camelot and founded Knights of the Round Table.
He was Aun's son and was buried at Old Uppsala in mounds. He is in Beowulf and Ynglinga Saga of Iceland.
He lived 605 to 639, united Merovingian Frankish kingdoms, and controlled Bretons and Basques.
He codified law, based on Alaric's code [654].
He lived 688 to 741, was Frankish king [714 to 741] from Austrasia east of Rhine River, united former Merovingian kingdoms of Franks, won Battle of Tours [733], and founded Carolingian line. He helped Boniface convert Germany to Christianity. He was grandfather of Charlemagne.
He was governor of Spain [721 to 732], fought Battle of Toulouse [721], and invaded France again, but lost at Tours (Poitiers) to Charles Martel of Franks [732].
He lived 685 to 741 and issued short unsystematic law set in Greek [730] and new decrees in maritime law and feudalism.
He lived 714 to 768 and started Carolingian Dynasty of Franks when he became Frank king by election [751]. He deposed last Merovingian king, defended Rome from Lombards twice, and gave his acquisitions in Italy, including Ravenna, to the pope, creating Papal States [756]. The pope gave him the title Patrician of Rome. He then fought Saxons, who were pagan, and drove Moorish Kingdom behind Pyrenees. He was father of Charlemagne.
He lived ? to 788, went to Spain after escaping from Abu Muslem, and became emir of Cordoba. North Spain also contained Kingdoms of Leon, Castile, Navarre, Aragon, and Barcelona.
He was king of West Saxons or Wessex [757 to 786]. He wrote in Old English.
He lived 742 to 813. Of Carolingian Dynasty of Franks, he united Franks again [771]. He defeated Spanish Moors and set up Spanish March, from along Pyrenees down to Ebro River and Catalonia. He took Austria [788], defeated Saxons, converted them, and restored Leo III to Holy See after defeating Lombards. He got Carinthia and Bohemia from Avars, Wends, and Slavs. He set up the Dane Mark or Dane March at Elbe River in north Germany to stop Danes. He became emperor of Western Empire of Rome [800], when Pope Leo III, who had regained Rome by Charlemagne's conquests, crowned him. Western Empire of Rome had France, Germany, and Italy. Capital was at Aachen.
Charlemagne presided at synods and ruled the bishops.
Alcuin of York was his teacher, founded palace school at Aachen, ran library, and taught at Tours. Einhard wrote life of Charlemagne. It used Carolingian alphabet to copy Bibles and books.
Charlemagne set weights and measures to one silver pound equal to 240 pennies {denarii}.
Charlemagne and Catholic Church developed new warfare rules. He established royal court {aula regis}, which was superior to popular courts. He also issued decrees {capitulary} on the poor, general welfare, and education, with his council's consent.
He sent envoys {missi, envoy} to all empire parts to force law obeyance and inspect. He contacted Byzantine and Islamic Empires.
Art was for religious purposes, not just personal glory.
He was king of Mercia in central England, fought south Wales [778], and built dike [784] between England and Wales.
He lived 770 to 839, was king of Wessex [802 to 839], defeated Mercia at Battle of Ellendun [825], and united England.
He lived 778 to 840, was Charlemagne's son, and was Frank. He negotiated at Lugenfeld (Field of Lies) [833] and faced incursions by Norse. His sons were Lothair I, Charles II the Bald, and Louis the German, who rebelled often.
He lived 804 to 876, was Louis I the Pious' son, got Germany [817], and was East Frank king [817 to 876].
He lived 795 to 855, was Louis I the Pious' son, and got Lotharingia and Italy [817 to 855], and led Holy Roman Empire [840 to 855].
He lived 823 to 877, was Louis I the Pious' son, got south and west France [843 to 877], held Council of Pistes [864], and led Holy Roman Empire [875 to 877].
He lived ? to 907 and was khan [852 to 889]. Bulgaria became Christian [865].
He was Viking in southeast Norway and became first king of Norway at Hafrs Fjord [872], uniting small kingdoms and causing some losers to go to Iceland and other losers, under Rollo, to go to Normandy.
He lived 849 to 899 and was West Saxon king [866 to 889]. He defeated Danes [871], captured London, and limited Danes to the Danelaw: East Anglia, Midlands, York, Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, Leicester, and Stamford. Northumbria in Scotland, Wales in west Britain, Mercia in middle-south Britain, and Wessex in southwest England were free. He recaptured some of the Danelaw from Danes [886], becoming king of all England.
He codified laws, emphasized Christianity, and started navy, schools, and writing. He set up fortified sites {burgh} and shires. He commissioned Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, history of England.
He lived ? to 886, was Byzantine emperor [867 to 886], started Macedonian dynasty [867 to 1081], and issued law condensations [888] and new decrees in maritime law and feudalism.
He lived 862 to 912, was Basilius' son, and restated Roman law in 60 books, abridging all previous work and eliminating obsolete law.
He lived 864 to 927, was king of Bulgaria [888 to 927], took Serbia [925], and was first tsar of Bulgarian Empire [925 to 927].
Edward recaptured all the Danelaw from Danes.
He lived 855 to 936 and regained independence from Sweden [899]. Jelling was capital. He was father of Harold I.
He was Duke of Bohemia [907 to 929], promoted Christianity, and negotiated peace with Henry I of Saxony [929]. He is Roman Catholic patron saint of Bohemia.
He lived 890 to 918 and was Duke of Franconia [906 to 918]. East Franks chose him leader against Magyars [911].
He lived 879 to 929, was king [893 to 922], and gave Norsemen Duchy of Normandy [911] to keep peace and to become Christians.
He lived 860 to 932. Charles III of France gave Viking Rollo Duchy of Normandy [911 to 932] to keep peace and become Christians.
He lived 891 to 961, was Omayyad, started Cordova Caliphate, and supported arts and industry. Artisans invented paper.
He lived 876 to 936, was father of Otto I, and was first Saxon king [919]. He defeated Wends, took Lotharingia, and defeated Magyars. Denmark became vassals.
He lived 895 to 939, was Alfred the Great's grandson, was king of England [925 to 939], and defeated Scots, Irish, and Danes at Battle of Brunanburg [937] in north England.
He lived 915 to 967 or 972, killed Wenceslaus [929], and was duke of Bohemia [929 to 967].
He lived 912 to 973. Of Brandenburg Dynasty or Ottonian Dynasty of Saxon emperors, he was Henry the Fowler's son, became Saxon king [636], united France and Germany, and took Italy [951]. The pope crowned him Holy Roman emperor [962]. He fought France, conquered Lombardy, and aided Pope John XII.
He was king of Deheubarth, took Gwynedd, and ruled Wales [942]. He codified law in south Wales [942].
He lived 935 to 992 and was Piast duke of Poland [963]. He preceded Boleslav I, who started independent kingdom.
He lived 945 to 972, was Grand Prince of Kiev [964 to 972], defeated Khazars, and marched to Caucasus and Balkans, taking Belorussia.
He lived 911 to 986 and was Gorm the Old's son.
He lived 960 to 1014, was Harold Bluetooth's son, was king of Denmark [986 to 1014], took England [1013], allied with Sweden, and defeated King Olaf I of Norway, dividing Norway [999 to 1014].
He lived 938 to 996, deposed Carolingian line, and became king of France [987], starting Capetian line.
He lived 969 to 1038, was first of Arpad dynasty, accepted Christianity, and was first king of Hungary. Magyars became Christians. Nobles {magnate, Hungary} grew more powerful.
He lived 980 to 1002, was king in Germany [983 to 1002], was Holy Roman emperor [998 to 1002], deposed the pope, set up German pope, and then set up French pope.
He lived 941 to 1014, was king of Munster [997], and became High King of Ireland [1002]. He defeated Vikings and dissident nobles at Battle of Clontarf [1014], but someone killed him afterward.
He lived 995 to 1030, established Christianity, and fled when King Canute's followers revolted [1028].
He lived 994 to 1035, was Sweyn's son, was Viking king, and united Denmark, England, and Norway [1016]. He codified laws and brought peace and Christianity.
He lived 1017 to 1056 and was of Salian dynasty. Holy Roman Empire was at greatest extent. He supported reform by Benedictine Cluniac monastic order, which wanted a government-free church, and helped elect a German reform pope. In 1046, he deposed three popes and nominated popes.
He lived 1024 to 1047 and became king when Canute died [1035]. He was king of Denmark [1042 to 1047].
He lived 1017 to 1065. King of Castile [1035 to 1065] and Leon [1037] subjugated Moors in Seville, Toledo, Saragossa, and Badajoz [1065] and controlled Spain.
He lived 1020 to 1057, defeated Duncan [1040], killed him to take over kingdom, and then lost part of kingdom to Malcolm [1054].
He lived 1003 to 1066, reduced taxes, and struggled with Godwin. He chose Godwin's son as heir, leading to Norman Conquest of England [1066].
He lived 1050 to 1106, was king of Germany [1056 to 1105], and established Holy Roman Empire rule over duchies [1084]. He and Pope Gregory VIII clashed over bishop and abbot investiture [1075]. He appointed his own bishops in defiance of Pope Gregory VII. Threatened with revolt, he humbled himself in the snow before the pope, but civil war started anyway. He invaded Italy, forced Pope Gregory VII from Rome, and named Guibert of Ravenna pope. Guibert crowned him emperor [1084]. His son Henry V forced him to abdicate [1105].
He lived 1022 to 1066. Witan assembly elected him king [1066], with Pope's sanction. He lost and died at Battle of Hastings [1066].
He lived 1027 to 1087, was Duke of Normandy, and conquered England, led by Harold, at Battle of Hastings [1066] during Norman Conquest. He built many castles, brought in priests from France, started separate ecclesiastical courts, surveyed England, and demanded loyalty first to king then to nobles. Norman kings followed. He sent representatives to preside over county courts, rather than use clergy. He held all land parcels directly or indirectly.
He lived 1040 to 1109, was king of León [1065 to 1109], was king of Castile [1072 to 1109], and attacked Muslim kingdoms in Spain.
He lived 1040 to 1095 and got Croatia and Hungary [1077] after Boleslaus III of Poland died.
She lived 1046 to 1115, was countess of Tuscany [1077 to 1115], and gave her land to the pope [1115].
He lived 1066 to 1112, was duke of Burgundy, and became Count of Portugal [1093].
He lived 1086 to 1125, deposed his father, was Germany king [1099 to 1125], was Holy Roman emperor [1111 to 1125], was of Salian Dynasty, captured the pope and cardinals, and forced them to allow him to appoint his own bishops.
He lived 1082 to 1153 and started feudal system.
He lived 1070 to 1137, was king of Germany [1125 to 1137], and was Holy Roman emperor [1133 to 1137] after election by nobles, who elected all later emperors.
She lived 1122 to 1204 and was queen to Louis VII of France [1137 to 1152]. Later, she got annulment, became queen of Henry II of Burgundy and England [1152 to 1189], set up her court at Poitiers, helped her sons revolt against Henry II, and got her son Richard I kingship of England [1189 to 1199], then her son John [1199 to 1216].
He lived 1110 to 1185, was Henry of Burgundy's son, and was first king of Portugal [1139 to 1185], becoming independent of Castile. He took Lisbon [1147], Cadiz, and Murcia from Caliphate. He favored art and learning.
He lived 1093 to 1152, was king of Germany [1138 to 1152], and was first Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy Roman Empire [1148]. In Second Crusade, he sailed to Antioch to establish Principality of Antioch and sailed to Tyre to hold it. He struggled with papacy.
He lived 1120 to 1160, established Christianity in north Sweden, and conquered Finland [1157].
He lived 1123 to 1190 and was duke of Swabia as Frederick III [1147 to 1190]. As Hohenstaufen emperor of Holy Roman Empire [1152 to 1190], he elevated Henry the Lion in Saxony and Bavaria but then humiliated him and ended last duchies of Germany [1152]. As king of Germany, he then proclaimed general peace. As emperor, he started calling Germany Holy Roman Empire. He fought Pope Alexander III and Lombard League but lost at Legnano and accepted Peace of Constance [1183], guaranteeing Lombard-city freedom. He led Third Crusade [1189] against Saladin, but he drowned.
He lived 1133 to 1189, was king [1154 to 1189], founded English jury and court system, and was first of Plantagenet Dynasty. He was Duke of Burgundy and married Eleanor of Aquitaine. He invaded England and defeated barons.
He struggled with Thomas à Becket over whose courts tried clergymen. He convened Great Council [1164], which proclaimed Constitutions of Clarendon, which gave more power to king's courts to try clergymen. His knights murdered Thomas à Becket, and people's reaction forced him to do penance. After he had Thomas à Becket killed, he rescinded Constitutions of Clarendon.
He took north England and Wales. Pope Adrian IV awarded him Ireland, and he invaded it [1167]. He struggled with his son. He invaded Ireland again [1172]. Richard I, Eleanor's son, and Philip II of France defeated him [1185].
He lived 1131 to 1182, defeated Sweyn [1157] at Viborg, and ruled north Scandinavia.
He lived 1165 to 1223. Of Capetian Dynasty, he joined Third Crusade to take back Jerusalem [1191] but retreated to Egypt. He conquered Angevins in west. He increased king's power over nobles, created law court and advisory council, and warred on England to regain his lands. France became the greatest European power at Bouvines [1214], doubling kingdom's size. He fought the Albigenses religious sect, which controlled south France. He ended serfdom, built cathedrals and cities, and presided over prosperity.
He lived 1151 to 1202 and established power over nobles [1201].
He lived 1157 to 1199 and fought his father Henry II to gain crown. He went on Third Crusade [1189] and his brother John became king. Leopold II imprisoned him and then gave him to Henry VI. Ransom released him, and he fought Philip of France. He returned to England and regained his crown.
He lived 1150 to 1195. The count of Hainaut took Flanders, but Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres remained independent.
He lived ? to 1230, was duke [1197 to 1198], and was king [1198 to 1230].
He lived 1167 to 1216 and became king while Richard I was on Third Crusade. He had Richard held captive abroad. He lost Brittany to Philip II of France. Barons forced him to sign Magna Carta [1215]. He exiled all Catholic monks. The pope interdicted and excommunicated all of England. England had war threats. King John became vassal to Pope.
He lived 1170 to 1241 and ruled north Scandinavia.
He lived 1194 to 1250. Of Hohenstaufen Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he became king {anti-king} in opposition to Otto IV [1210]. He peacefully got Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem [1228] by treaty. He fought Pope Gregory IX, Pope Innocent III, and Pope Innocent IV [1239 to 1250] and conquered Italy. His court was in Sicily. Law, currency, and commerce reforms, and arts and science expansion, made his era the Proto-Renaissance. After he died [1250], the pope became ruler of Italy.
He lived 1207 to 1272, was John's son, and was king [1227 to 1272]. Regency [1216 to 1227] lost in invasions of Gascony and Brittany and spent much money. As Plantagenet, he became king [1227]. Barons' War under Simon de Montfort defeated him at Lewes [1263]. Barons called Parliament but then lost to Edward I.
He lived 1204 to 1263 and reformed legal system and got Iceland and Greenland [1223].
Trnovo was capital.
He lived 1215 to 1270, was Capetian, stopped invasion by England, stopped warring nobles of France, led Seventh Crusade to Egypt, was captive at El Mansura [1250], and crusaded against Tunis. He improved taxation, gave right of appeal to all, streamlined administration, and built Gothic cathedrals. He became Roman Catholic saint.
He lived 1220 to 1263, led Novgorod [1236], and was Grand Prince of Vladimir [1252].
He lived 1218 to 1257 and ruled Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg as count of Hainaut.
He lived 1230 to 1278, was Premysl, was King of Bohemia [1253 to 1278], and was Duke of Austria [1253 to 1276]. As King of Bohemia, he took Austria from Brandenbergs of Saxony [1251].
He lived 1230 to 1278 and was king of Bohemia [1253 to 1278]. Premysls or Przemysls were under Holy Roman Empire, ruled Bohemia, and acquired Silesia and Moravia.
He lived 1226 to 1285, was king of Sicily [1262 to 1282] and king of Naples [1282 to 1285], was of Angevin family, and led Guelphs to control of Italy by beating Ghibellines under Manfred [1266]. Sicilian Vespers revolt [1282], instigated by Peter III of Aragon, ended his rule in Silicy.
He lived 1238 to 1280 and settled with Scotland [1266] and codified law [1274].
He lived 1245 to 1285 and was of Capetian Dynasty.
He lived 1239 to 1307, was king [1272 to 1307], won Baron's War for his father, conquered Wales [1282 to 1284], and fought Scotland.
He reformed laws. He reduced private and church courts and limited Church courts to church matters, in Circumspecte Agatis. He permitted attachments of feudal lands by merchants, in Statute of Merchants. He issued Statute of Mortmain decree, which prohibited land transfer to Church without king's consent [1300].
He reproclaimed Magna Charta. He formed Model Parliament [1295] of barons, clergy, and merchants and promised no taxes without its consent. Parliament had two knights from every shire and two burgesses from every town. He granted Parliament right to present petitions to king.
He defeated Scottish armies and ruled Scotland directly [1296 to 1307] but died in 1307.
Near end of his reign, judicial scandal caused court reform, and thereafter judges were people trained in law, not churchmen or courtiers.
He lived 1218 to 1291. As duke of Austria, he became emperor and started Hapsburg dynasty. He was friendly with the pope and tried to check the robber barons. He defeated Ottocar II of Bohemia, gained Austria, and united Germany.
He lived 1261 to 1325 and fought Knights Templar, founded university, and helped farmers.
He lived 1268 to 1314. Of Capetian Dynasty, he tried to extend clergy taxation and stop gold export, which angered Pope Boniface VIII. He arrested Bishop Saisset for rebellion, called first States-General, and captured the pope. He had Pope Clement V elected and moved him to Avignon, France. He got money by confiscating wealth of bankers in Lombardy, Jews in France, and Knights Templar. He lost at Guienne to Edward I of England and failed to control Flanders in Battle of the Spurs.
He lived 1284 to 1327.
He lived 1310 to 1346, became Bohemia king, and became overlord of Silesia dukes [1335].
He lived 1274 to 1329, defeated English at Bannockburn in central Scotland [1314], and became king of Scotland.
He lived 1282 to 1347 and defeated Frederick the Fair at Muhlberg [1322]. He struggled against Pope Clement VII.
He lived 1316 to 1377. Nobles elected him king. He united Sweden [1319 to 1363] and Norway [1319 to 1343] and allied with Waldemar IV, king of Denmark, but Hanseatic League defeated him. His son was Haakon VI. Albert of Mecklenburg replaced Magnus VII and Haakon VI.
He lived 1314 to 1364 and was Duke of Schleswig [1330 to 1364].
He lived 1293 to 1350, deposed Capetian kings of France, and became first Valois king by Salic law. He got control of Flanders, began Hundred Years War, and ended its first phase with his defeat at Crecy.
He lived 1327 to 1377 and was king [1327 to 1377]. He gained power [1330] but failed to subdue Scotland. He entered Hundred Years War [1337 to 1359] with his son Edward the Black Prince, which ended with Treaty of London. He had money troubles with Parliament. He caused economic crash by defaulting on payments to Bardi and Peruzzi families of Florence [1339]. Through his mother, he claimed he was king of France. He agreed to get consent of Parliament for all laws [1350]. Statute of Laborers [1351] tried to make all work have wage ceiling and set fixed prices. Wat Taylor rebellion was series of revolts against it. Finally, king ended Statute and promised end to serfdom. He saw Black Death cause demands for social change. He had trouble with church and John Wyclif. He ended Brehon Laws of Ireland. He appointed judges {Justices of the Peace} to preside over national courts in shires [1361]. The Good Parliament [1376] elected Speaker to represent Commons and spoke against high taxes.
He lived 1308 to 1355, took Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Thessaly from Byzantine Empire, controlled Montenegro, and attacked Constantinople.
He lived 1312 to 1400, defeated peasants after revolt, and had to deal with barons under Earl of Gloucester. He married Charles IV of France's daughter [1396]. He banished his cousin Henry of Bolingbroke for accusing Duke of Norfolk of treason. Later, Henry of Bolingbroke, who became Henry IV, forced him to abdicate.
He lived 1320 to 1375 and fought Hanseatic League but lost. He reunited Denmark and allied with Magnus VII, king of Norway and Sweden, but he lost to Hanseatic League. He took Norway by beating Albert of Mecklenburg, Swedish king.
He lived 1326 to 1382, got Dalmatia, defeated Ottoman Empire, mastered nearby lands, and ruled Poland [1370 to 1382], displacing Piasts.
He lived 1316 to 1378, was king of Germany and Bohemia [1346 to 1378], and wrote Golden Bull [1356], which lasted until 1806. It established seven prince-electors as diet legislative upper house. They elected emperor. Brandenburg, Bohemia, and Saxony were the important electors. Other princes were in diet middle house. City representatives were in diet lower assembly.
He lived 1330 to 1376 and defeated France at Poitiers [1356] and captured the French king, John II.
He lived 1338 to 1380 and put down Jacquerie Revolt of peasants against nobles and army. He gave rights to assembly {States-General} but revoked those rights to stop the power of Étienne Marcel and Charles the Bad. He appointed Du Guesclin as constable of France, who drove England out of France [1734]. He increased taxes and developed standing army. He favored learning under his ministers, Marmousets.
He lived 1345 to 1383 and fought Castile [1369].
She lived 1353 to 1412 and was queen of Denmark [1388 to 1412], Sweden [1375 to 1412], and Norway [1389 to 1412].
He lived 1368 to 1422.
He lived 1357 to 1433. As master of Knights of Aviz, he cooperated in revolt against Spain and, with Pereira of Portugal, defeated Castile at Aljubarota. He defeated Moors, allied with England, and began colonization and exploration. He started Aviz Dynasty.
He lived 1350 to 1434, was grand duke of Lithuania [1378 to 1401], became Ladislaus II king of Poland [1386 to 1434], and founded Jagiello Dynasty and Polish-Lithuanian kingdom, strongest in east Europe.
He lived 1367 to 1413, invaded England in Richard II's absence, and then put down Scotland, Wales, and Percy rebellions. He founded Lancaster Dynasty, whose symbol was the white rose. Lancaster Dynasty was Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI.
He lived 1350 to 1430 and ruled Lithuania at height.
He lived 1372 to 1407. As Duke of Orleans, he caused civil war between south-France Armagnacs and east-France Burgundians [1407]. He started Valois-Orleans kings [1411].
He lived 1387 to 1422. Of Lancaster Dynasty, as Prince Hal, he defeated Glendower and army of Wales. He invaded France [1415], restarting Hundred Years War. He defeated France at Agincourt, France [1415], and conquered Normandy [1417 to 1419]. He put down Lollards [1417]. He married French king's daughter.
He lived 1396 to 1467 and was duke of Burgundy and count of Flanders. He took Luxembourg, Netherlands, and Belgium [1433]. He sponsored Treaty of Troyes, giving England rule of Normandy. He supported Pragueries nobles against Charles VII. Then he allied with Charles VII of France in Treaty of Arras.
He lived 1403 to 1461. Joan of Arc rallied him at Orleans [1429]. He allied with Burgundy [1435] and ended Hundred Years War against England [1453]. He strengthened finances with Jacques Coeur, wealthy Orient trader. Coeur left after someone poisoned Agnes Sorel, Charles' mistress. Charles VII put down Praguerie revolt of nobles.
He lived 1421 to 1471. During his regency, England lost to Joan of Arc and France in Hundred Years War. Queen Margaret of Anjou and Duke of Somerset were Lancaster regents and leaders. Of Lancaster Dynasty, he became king of France [1430] but lost Paris when Burgundians ended alliance [1436]. Richard, Duke of York, whose symbol was the red rose, fought Queen Margaret of Anjou and Duke of Somerset for kingship in Wars of the Roses, captured Henry VI, and killed Somerset at St. Albans [1455]. He lost kingship [1461] but got it back [1470 to 1471].
He lived 1394 to 1460 and was King John I of Portugal's son. Of Aviz Dynasty, he sent Vasco de Gama to discover Africa at Angola. Portuguese reached Cape Bojaddor [1434], Cape Verde Islands [1444], Azores [1444], and Senegal [1445]. He sent Cabral to discover Brazil. He sent Almeida and Albuquerque to discover East Indies. The pope gave monopoly on Africa to Portugal by Pontifex Romanus [1455]. He started slave trade. He commissioned maps, scales, and cartography.
He lived 1432 to 1481. Of Aviz Dynasty, he monopolized African trade by lease. Portuguese reached Equator [1473] and Vongo [1482]. Fort was at Elmina, Guinea [1481]. Bartolomeu Diaz reached Cape of Good Hope [1487]. Portuguese reached Calicut, India [1498].
He lived 1413 to 1471, was Elector of Brandenburg, and was Hapsburg.
He lived 1385 to 1456, was governor of Transylvania [1441], and took Belgrade from Ottoman Empire [1456].
He lived 1427 to 1492 and united Poland with Grand Duchy of Lithuania [1447].
He lived 1415 to 1493. Of Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he used marriages to try to make Austria rule world.
He lived 1437 to 1504.
He lived 1443 to 1490, was king of Hungary [1458 to 1490], conquered and became king of Bohemia [1478 to 1490] and Austria, founded Corvina library at Buda or Budapest, and fought Ottoman Empire.
He lived 1442 to 1483, defeated Duke of Lancaster, and captured Henry VI. He lost later to Earl of Warwick and Margaret of Anjou, queen to Henry VI [1470], but then he defeated them [1471]. He founded York kings. He was Richard Duke of York's son. York kings were Edward IV, Edward V, and Richard III.
He lived 1423 to 1483 and was Valois. As dauphin, he conspired against his father Charles VII. He submitted to League of the Public Weal, led by Charles the Bold of Burgundy and Francis II of Brittany, but then he reneged. He got Peace of Ancenis from Francis II but then helped the captured Charles the Bold stop revolt of Liege. He took part of Mary of Burgundy's lands at her death. He revoked Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges [1461], which had limited the pope's authority and asserted French Roman Catholic Church's independence.
He lived 1440 to 1505, freed Moscow from Golden Horde or Tatar Empire [1480], expanded state, threw out German merchants, and took Novgorod. He married last Byzantine Emperor's niece and called himself Tsar.
He lived 1433 to 1477, controlled Low Countries, and fought Louis XI of France. He was Philip the Good's son.
He lived 1449 to 1492, stopped Pazzi Conspiracy [1748], fought the pope [until 1481], and failed to check Savonarola [1492 to 1494].
She lived 1451 to 1504 and married Ferdinand V [1469], king of Aragon, to found Spanish monarchy.
He lived 1456 to 1516, had a double marriage treaty, was king of Hungary [1490 to 1516], and was Ladislaus II king of Bohemia [1471 to 1516].
He lived 1452 to 1516, was king of Castile [1474 to 1504], was Ferdinand II of Aragon [1479 to 1516] and Ferdinand II of Sicily [1468 to 1516], and married Isabella I of Castile and Leon to unite Spain [1469]. He took last Moorish city in Spain at Granada [1474]. He expelled Moors and Jews from Spain. He started Spanish Inquisition [1478]. He sent Columbus to America [1492]. He divided overseas colonies with Portugal at Treaty of Tordesillas. He won Navarre in Italian Wars between Spain and France.
Isabella I and Ferdinand V are the "Catholic kings".
She lived 1457 to 1482. When she died, rebellion spread in Flanders.
He lived 1459 to 1519 and married Anne of Brittany to get part of France. Marriage caused war with France. He lost part of France at Treaty of Arras [1482]. He regained it at Treaty of Senlis. He married Mary of Burgundy [1493] to get Low Countries as king of Germany and Burgundy and Holy Roman emperor [1493 to 1519]. As king of Austria, he put down rebellion in Flanders. He married niece of Ludovico Sforza to get Milan. He warred with Venice, leading to fighting in Italian Wars and costing all his money. He reformed, tried to crusade against Turks, encouraged Swabian League, helped merchants, patronized arts, and allowed Protestant Reformation.
He lived 1452 to 1485. Of York Dynasty, he murdered the true king Edward V in Tower of London, put down rebellion of Stafford, lost to Earl of Richmond (Henry VII) at Bosworth Field [1485], and was last of York kings, ending Wars of the Roses.
He lived 1465 to 1509 and was first Tudor king of England and Wales. Of Lancaster Dynasty, he invaded England and defeated Richard III of House of York at Bosworth Field [1485]. He married a York and founded Tudor line, ending Wars of the Roses. Tudor line was Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I, and Elizabeth I. He subdued Ireland and negotiated peace with Scotland. He founded Star Chamber.
He lived 1469 to 1521 and tried to convert Jews to Christianity, but they left.
He lived 1462 to 1515, was Valois, and resumed Italian Wars but lost to Holy Roman Empire.
He lived 1491 to 1547 and married Katherine of Aragon, who bore Mary I. He allied with France at Field of the Cloth of Gold. His minister was Cardinal Wolsey. Later, Charles V of Holy Roman Empire and he fought France. He got rid of Wolsey when he failed to get divorce. He married Anne Boleyn. Thomas Cromwell became minister and started anti-Catholic policy. He married Anne Boleyn [1530], who bore Elizabeth I. He took the pope's powers for himself, established Church of England, and published the Bible in English. He married Jane Seymour, who bore Edward VI, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr. He also took Wales, warred with Scotland, and lost Ireland.
In 1534, he split with Roman Catholicism and became English church leader.
He lived 1481 to 1559 and was king of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden [1513 to 1523] and Denmark [1513 to 1523]. Of Oldenburg line, he took Stockholm, Sweden, after Sture family died out at Lake Asunde [1520].
He lived 1494 to 1547. With Venice, he resumed Italian Wars and won at Marignano. He lost election to be emperor of Holy Roman Empire to Charles V [1519]. He failed to ally with England at Field of the Cross of Gold. He attacked Charles V and lost at Pavia [1525]. He signed Treaty of Madrid, giving up claims to Spanish territory. He formed League of Cognac with the pope, Venice, and Florence, leading to another war with Charles V. War ended to League's disadvantage at Treaty of Cambrai [1529]. He allied with Suleiman I of Ottoman Empire and fought Charles V of Holy Roman Empire and Henry VIII of England [1542]. He had to sign Treaty of Crepy, in which France lost Naples and Flanders and Charles V lost Burgundy.
He lived 1500 to 1558, was Charles I of Spain [1516 to 1556] and was Charles V of Holy Roman Empire [1519 to 1558]. He fought France under Francis I in Italian Wars, sacked Rome, and got Italy. He then succeeded Ferdinand V and Isabella I as Charles I of Spain. He defeated Schmalkaldic League but compromised his anti-Protestant position by Peace of Augsburg [1555]. He promoted Catholic Reformation. He conquered Mexico and Peru. Silver mined at Potosi, Peru, helped cause inflation in Europe.
He lived 1500 to 1558. As Archduke of Austria and king of Spain, nobles elected him Holy Roman Emperor [1519]. Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire included Spain, Latin America, Naples, Sicily, Low Countries, and Austria. He defeated the peasants in Peasants' War [1524 to 1526] and in other uprisings.
This preserved feudalism [until 1806].
He had to give power to German princes. He abdicated in favor of his brothers and son [1554] to become Charles I of Spain [until 1556]. As Holy Roman Empire emperor and Austria king, he added territory in Flanders and Holland [1490]. He took Rome and captured Pope Clement VII [1527].
He lived 1502 to 1557, was Manuel I's son, started Inquisition, and increased slavery. Kingdom was at height.
He lived 1496 to 1560. Nobles elected him king after he led peasants revolt against Denmark and dissolved Kalmar Union. He established Lutheran Church [1527]. He ended economic dependence on Hanseatic League by defeating it [1537]. He founded Vasa Dynasty: Gustavus I, Eric XIV, Charles IX, Gustavus II, Christina, Charles X, and Charles XI.
He lived 1519 to 1574, had absolute power, and led Florence at height. He became grand duke of Tuscany [1569 to 1574] through the pope's order. He was Giovanni de' Medici or Giovanni delle Bande Nere's son [1498 to 1526]. He gained a banking fortune, patronized arts, and started Medici rule.
She lived 1542 to 1587, was queen of Scotland [1542 to 1567], and was queen consort of France [1559 to 1560]. She escaped to England after her husband's murder and her remarriage. She engaged in several attempts to get throne from Queen Elizabeth I, with Catholic support, because she was Catholic. England beheaded her [1587].
He lived 1537 to 1553 and was under regency of Duke of Somerset, Edward Seymour, who eased heresy and treason laws, favored Protestants, and helped yeomen. Duke of Northumberland engineered Somerset's downfall and caused struggle for throne by opposing Mary I.
She lived 1516 to 1558. Staunch Catholic, she married Philip II of Spain, allied with Spain, and restored England to Catholic Church. Her religious persecutions made her Bloody Mary.
He lived 1527 to 1598 and ascended when his father, Charles I, abdicated. He got Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg at Treaty of Augsburg between Spain and Holy Roman Empire. Belgium had Flanders, Hainaut, Limburg, Antwerp, and Brabant. He married Mary I of England but left when he did not become king of England. He fought France. By Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis [1559], Spain became leading European power, holding America, Naples, Sicily, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Portugal, Milan, and Franche-Comte in France. He was strong Catholic and emphasized Spanish Inquisition. When he imposed the Inquisition in the Netherlands, William the Silent led rebellion against Duke of Alba. Philip II took Portugal when Henry I died, with support of legislature {Cortes} of Portugal. Because Francis Drake had raided Cadiz and England's navy had helped Netherlands, he built Spanish Armada, but it lost [1588]. He helped Catholic League in Wars of Religion in France. He gained Philippines.
He lived 1554 to 1578 and lost Africa.
He lived 1503 to 1564. Of Hapsburg Dynasty of Holy Roman Empire, he fought Suleiman I in Hungary, pushed Protestant Reformation, abolished liberty, fought Peasants' War, and got Peace of Augsburg [1555].
She lived 1533 to 1603, was Tudor, and built navy, colonies, and trade under her ministers Burghly and Cecil. She favored Anglicans against Protestants and first sheltered then imprisoned Mary, Queen of Scots. She had romances with Earl of Essex and Earl of Leicester.
He lived 1547 to 1578 and defeated Ottoman Empire navy at naval Battle of Lepanto [1571].
He lived 1551 to 1589. Henry of Navarre led Huguenots, a French Protestant party, and married Margaret of Valois, leading to St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of Protestants in Paris, followed by Wars of Religion. Henry of Navarre defeated Henry III and Catholic League. Because Henry III was last of Valois line, Henry III designated Henry of Navarre (later Henry IV) to be king. Duke of Guise, head of Catholic League, opposed this designation, and War of the Three Henries followed, in which Henry III murdered Guise and Catholic League rebels.
He lived 1533 to 1586 and was Prince of Transylvania [1576 to 1586] in Romania. Nobles elected him King of Poland [1575].
He lived 1557 to 1598, was Ivan IV's son, and was Rurikid. Oleg followed and moved to Kiev.
He lived 1551 to 1605 and was Feodor I's son.
He lived 1566 to 1632 and was king of Poland [1587 to 1632] and Sweden [1592 to 1599]. Vasa kings of Poland fought Sweden and Russia.
Bourbon line in France had Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI. Later, it had kings of Spain and Sicily and branched into Bourbon-Vendôme line in France and Bourbon-Parma line in Italy.
He lived 1553 to 1610, was of Bourbon family, was Huguenot leader, and defeated army sent by Henry III of France and Catholic League, ending Wars of Religion. He gave up Protestantism to enter Paris. He fought Spain until Treaty of Vervins. He published Edict of Nantes, giving religious tolerance. His minister Sully worked for trade and order and helped peasants. In 1598, he granted toleration to Protestants. He started Bourbon line. Bourbons were Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI.
He lived 1578 to 1621. Lerma ran government, negotiated peace with England and United Provinces (the Netherlands), and entered Thirty Years War. Philip III expelled Moriscos, who were Christian Moors that had rebelled.
He lived 1566 to 1625, was Stuart, and was Mary Queen of Scots' son. He was king of Scotland before 1603 and allied with Elizabeth I of England. As king of England, he favored Catholicism, dissolved Parliament [1611], and allowed war on Spain. Stuarts were James I, Charles I, Charles II, and James II.
He lived 1601 to 1643, was of Bourbon family, and married Anne of Austria. In 1610, Marie de Medici held regency. His ministers were Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin.
He lived 1594 to 1632 and ended Kalmar War with Denmark [1613] by payment. He gained concessions from nobles. He gained Livonia from Poland. He allied with France and Denmark to aid Protestants. He defeated all opponents in Germany as he swept through [1630 to 1632] in Thirty Years War.
He lived 1578 to 1637. Holy Roman Empire leader was strong Catholic and controlled Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary. Bohemian nobles rebelled, beginning Thirty Years War [1618]. He murdered his commander Wallenstein.
He lived 1605 to 1665 and was king of Spain [1621 to 1665] and Portugal [1621 to 1640]. Olivares was his chief minister.
He lived 1600 to 1647, was Stuart, and was king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. To get money, he had to sign Petition of Right [1628], which stated that taxes, imprisonment, and quartering of soldiers in homes needed due cause or consent of Parliament. Later, he dissolved Parliament. He tried to impose Catholicism in Scotland, leading to Bishop's Wars [1640]. Long Parliament convened, which was Protestant and middle class, while king and nobles were Catholic or Anglican. Duke of Buckingham, George Villiers, married him to French Catholic, leading to Puritan Revolution. In the civil war, Oliver Cromwell defeated him [1647]. Pride's Purge of Parliament rid the parliament of opposition to Protestant army. Rump Parliament beheaded Charles I.
He lived 1584 to 1647, defeated Spain in Thirty Years War, and presided over era of artists, scientists, commerce, and prosperity.
He lived 1595 to 1648.
He lived 1603 to 1656, was of Braganza family, and allied with England.
He lived 1620 to 1688, ended Thirty Years War, received territory at Peace of Westphalia [1648], got control of Prussia at Peace of Oliva [1660], and defeated Sweden in third Dutch War.
She lived 1601 to 1666, was consort to Louis XIII [1615], and held regency for Louis XIV [1643 to 1661]. Mazarin controlled her.
He lived 1638 to 1715. Anne of Austria was regent at first. During regency [1643 to 1661], Mazarin dominated, won Thirty Years War, ended Fronde rebellion, got Peace of the Pyrenees with Spain, and married Louis to Marie Therese of Austria.
From 1661 to 1691, the Bourbon Louis and his minister Colbert reformed economy. He pursued colonialism {mercantilism, Louis XIV}, added import taxes, and got gold from exports and manufacturing.
He emphasized control by state. He changed administration for civil servants and nobles.
He started War of Devolution, started third Dutch War with England and France against Holland, got Franche-Comte, got part of Flanders, and took Strasbourg. He fought League of Augsburg or Grand Alliance, which had Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, Spain, German states, England, and Holland, in War of the Grand Alliance. He fought War of the Spanish Succession against England, Holland, Austria, and most German states over whether Hapsburgs or Bourbons ruled Spain. French generals Villars and Vendôme matched English Duke of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy in Holland, but then Blenheim, Gibraltar, and Malplaquet were battle victories for Grand Alliance. War of the Spanish Succession ended in Peace of Utrecht and Treaty of Utrecht, Treaty of Rastatt, and Treaty of Baden. War ruined economy of France.
He revoked Edict of Nantes and persecuted Huguenots. He struggled with the pope over Gallicanism, which he supported, and Jansenism, which he suppressed.
His mistresses were La Valliere, Montespan, and Maintenon.
He built Versailles Palace.
He lived 1629 to 1676 and was Romanov.
He lived 1609 to 1669.
He lived 1609 to 1670, lost to Charles XI of Sweden, and lost in Thirty Years War.
He lived 1640 to 1705, was king of Hungary [1655 to 1705] and Bohemia [1658 to 1705], and Holy Roman emperor [1658 to 1705]. Holy Roman Empire warred with Louis XIV of France. He put down rebellion of Thokoly in Hungary and ended resulting siege of Vienna by Ottoman Empire, with aid from Poland. He got Hungary, Slovenia, and Croatia at Treaty of Karlowitz.
He lived 1630 to 1685 and was Stuart. General Monck ended rule of Cromwell and organized Stuart Restoration [1660]. Prime Minister was first Earl of Clarendon and then Cabal. London had plague and fire [1666]. He began second Dutch War against William of Orange. He intervened in Titus Oates affair, rumor that Jesuits were plotting to assassinate king. He dissolved Parliament [1681]. Political parties, parliamentary power, sea trade, and arts grew.
He lived 1655 to 1697, helped win Thirty Years War, and conquered St. Petersburg, Livonia in Estonia, Latvia, Karelia in east Finland, Denmark, south Sweden, and Pomerania in north Poland and northeast Germany.
He lived 1661 to 1700, was king of Spain, Naples, and Sicily [1665 to 1700], and fought with Louis XIV of France but lost.
He lived 1661 to 1682 and was Romanov.
She lived 1662 to 1694 and married William III [1677].
He lived 1666 to 1696 and was Romanov.
He lived 1672 to 1725, was Romanov, overthrew his sister, and took the title emperor. He shifted capital to St. Petersburg from Moscow. He expanded Russia to Black and Baltic Seas. He took Livonia, Estonia, and Karellas from Sweden [1721] and won Northern War. He took Azov on Black Sea from Ottoman Empire and built navy but later lost it. He defeated Persia.
He westernized and industrialized. He started universal taxation, reformed army and government, and built schools and hospitals. He freed women from serf status and crushed serf revolts. Serfs became even more subject to nobles. Russia had lumber and iron. He formed Russian Orthodox Church with himself as head.
He lived 1633 to 1701 and was Stuart. After Puritan Revolution [1649], he escaped to France and married Catholic. After Charles II became king, James II returned to England as Lord Admiral but later resigned. England exiled him after Titus Oates affair. He became king when Charles II died [1685]. He presided over the Bloody Assizes, bishop trials, and hostile parliaments. Glorious Revolution deposed him.
He lived 1650 to 1702. Before 1688, as William of Orange of United Provinces, he negotiated peace with England after Dutch Wars and fought against Louis XIV of France in War of the Grand Alliance. He helped remove James II of England and became king in Glorious Revolution. As king, he accepted Bill of Rights and Act of Settlement, gave land in Ireland to nobles, raised taxes, and started Bank of England. He fought Louis XIV of France in War of the Spanish Succession. Whigs, landowners and merchants, gained control of Parliament.
He lived 1682 to 1718, fought Northern War, and won at first but then lost to Russia and Poland [1721], ending Swedish power.
He lived 1670 to 1733. Elector of Saxony became king of Poland [1697].
He lived 1657 to 1713. Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenburg united Brandenburg and Duchy of Prussia.
She lived 1665 to 1714, was Stuart, and fought War of the Spanish Succession. Great Britain began [1707]. Parliament became strong. Because she had no children, she preceded Hanover kings: George I, George II, George III, George IV, and Victoria.
He lived 1689 to 1750.
He lived 1685 to 1740. Holy Roman Empire claimed Spain against Charles II of Spain, in War of the Spanish Succession. He involved Austria in War of the Polish Succession. His Pragmatic Sanction gave Hapsburg lands to Maria Theresa of Austria, which later led to War of the Austrian Succession.
He lived 1688 to 1740, created efficient army and government, and gained treasury surplus by avoiding war.
He lived 1683 to 1746 and was of Bourbon family. His accession led to War of the Spanish Succession, which Peace of Utrecht settled [1713]. Spain lost all outside territory to Austria and Britain, and he became king of Spain. Cardinal Alberoni tried to get back Italian lands, leading to Quadruple Alliance [1718] to block the move. Quadruple Alliance was France, England, Holy Roman Empire, and Germany. He also took part in War of the Polish Succession and War of the Austrian Succession.
He lived 1660 to 1727, was of Hanover family, and became king under Act of Settlement [1701]. Quadruple Alliance [1718] assured his succession. Whig party began to have real power.
He lived 1670 to 1735 and allied with Russia.
He lived 1710 to 1774 and was of Bourbon family. First, he was under regency of Philippe II or Philippe d'Orleans [1715 to 1723]. He fought War of the Polish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, and Seven Years War, which resulted, together with costly court and official corruption, in loss of colonies and financial ruin. Cardinal Fleury was minister [1726 to 1743]. Madame de Pompadour was mistress [1743 to 1764].
She lived 1684 to 1727.
He lived 1715 to 1730.
He lived 1683 to 1760, was of Hanover family, and fought War of the Austrian Succession. Walpole was Tory Prime Minister [until 1741] and fought Seven Years War. William Pitt the Elder was Whig Prime Minister [from 1741].
She lived 1693 to 1740, was in War of the Polish Succession [1733 to 1735], and attacked Turkey [1736].
He lived 1696 to 1763. Elector of Saxony was king of Poland [1735].
He lived 1740 to 1764.
He lived 1712 to 1786, engaged in War of the Austrian Succession against Maria Theresa of Austria, and gained Silesia. He fought Seven Years War [1756 to 1763] against Holy Roman Empire. He partitioned Poland. He fought War of the Bavarian Succession, after creating Furstenbund League of princes [1785]. Bavaria is in south Germany. He established Prussian military strength and reformed society and law.
She lived 1709 to 1762, ended German influence, fought in Seven Years War, and founded Moscow University.
She lived 1717 to 1780 and was queen of Hungary and Bohemia [1740 to 1780]. Austria controlled Milan, Mantua, Tuscany, and Modena in Italy, after end of War of Austrian Succession [1740 to 1748].
He lived 1714 to 1777. Pombal was his minister, and economy became good.
He lived 1716 to 1788 and was of Bourbon family. He joined Seven Years War through Family Compact between France and Spain, which ended with Treaty of Paris [1763]. He then controlled Naples, Parma, and Sicily. He helped American Revolution and gained territory in America at Treaty of Paris [1783]. Floridablanca was his minister, with increasing power and prosperity.
He lived 1738 to 1820, was of Hanover family, and blocked Whigs by forcing the older William Pitt's resignation. Lord North was his minister. Both forced American Revolution. Tories, who were aristocrats, controlled Parliament. Walpole, Burke, and the younger William Pitt were Tory ministers. Pitt ended king's power. George III became insane.
He lived 1728 to 1762.
She lived 1729 to 1796, partitioned Poland, got Crimea, fought Ottoman Empire, and colonized Alaska. After Pugachev Rebellion, she chartered nobles to make serfs slaves [1785].
He lived 1741 to 1790, abolished serfdom in Holy Roman Empire [1781], ended dues to feudal lords, allowed peasants to buy land cheaply, ordered religious tolerance, eliminated torture, liberalized penal code, and abolished monastic orders and clergy rights. Opposition by Furstenbund League of princes, under Frederick II of Prussia, caused him to fail to annex Bavaria in War of the Bavarian Succession. He allied with Russia and Catherine II against Ottoman Empire. He controlled Hungary, Bohemia, Austria, and part of Netherlands [1780].
He lived 1746 to 1792 and restored king's authority in Sweden, over Caps and Hats.
He lived 1754 to 1793 and was of Bourbon family. Helping American Revolution resulted in near bankruptcy. His ministers, first Turgot, and then Necker, tried to correct finances. He summoned States-General, leading to French Revolution [1789]. Ministers negotiated with Austria and French Revolution leaders, but he dismissed them after court politics involving Marie Antoinette. When French Revolutionary War started badly, king and queen tried to flee, and revolutionaries captured and guillotined them.
His queen was Marie Antoinette, who said, "Let them eat cake" when told the people had no bread.
He lived 1778 to 1846. France created Batavian kingdom in Netherlands [1778 to 1846].
He lived 1748 to 1819 and was of Bourbon family. His minister Godoy quit Spanish side of French Revolutionary Wars and allied with France. Iberian peoples of Spain and Portugal revolted against France in Peninsular War but lost to France, who captured his son. His queen was Maria Luisa.
He lived 1768 to 1835 and was Francis I king of Bohemia [1804 to 1835] and Hungary [1792 to 1835]. Holy Roman Empire lost to France in French Revolutionary Wars [1792]. He lost again to Napoleon [1806], dissolved Holy Roman Empire [1806], and gave his daughter Josephine to Napoleon. With Metternich, he joined coalition against Napoleon [1813].
He lived 1778 to 1837 and fought Napoleon with the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian coalition. He lost Finland to Russia. Revolution deposed him [1809].
He lived 1754 to 1801.
He lived 1770 to 1840, lost to Napoleon at Jena [1806], and signed Treaty of Tilsit, giving west Prussia to France. He gave Poland to Duke of Warsaw. He joined Continental System. Then his ministers revitalized Prussia and fought War of Liberation from France. He joined Holy Alliance.
He lived 1777-1825, was Romanov, and promoted Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia [1815].
He lived 1768 to 1844 and was king of Naples [1806 to 1808] and Spain [1808 to 1813].
He lived 1767 to 1826 and went back to Portugal from Brazil.
He lived 1784 to 1833, was of Bourbon family, and was king of Spain [1808 to 1833]. Napoleon captured him, but he later regained throne. He set aside new constitution twice. He lost mainland South and Central America [1825]. He caused Carlist Wars [1839] by giving his kingdom to his daughter instead of Don Carlos, as required by Salid law.
He lived 1748 to 1818, accepted constitution, settled with Russia, fought Napoleon at Leipzig [1814], and united Norway [1814 to 1818] with Sweden when Denmark gave up rule of Norway.
He lived 1755 to 1824. In Bourbon Restoration, he became king through Talleyrand at Congress of Vienna and Talleyrand was his foreign minister. He tried to reconcile French factions with new constitution. Someone assassinated his nephew. Royalists gained control through Villele [1820].
He lived 1772 to 1843.
He lived 1763 to 1844.
He lived 1757 to 1836. Talleyrand was his foreign minister.
He lived 1796 to 1855, was Romanov, crushed Decembrist Conspiracy, defeated Polish uprising, helped Austria defeat Hungarian Republic [1849], and lost Crimean War to Britain.
He lived 1773 to 1850. As Duke of Orleans, Lafayette helped him and he replaced Charles X in July Revolution [1830]. He allowed business freedom and Algeria colonization. His reactionary cabinet and slight electoral reforms led to February Revolution [1848].
He lived 1790 to 1865. Belgium became independent of Holland [1830].
He lived 1815 to 1867 and was from Bavaria.
She lived 1819 to 1853 and defeated Miguel in Miguelist Wars.
He lived 1793 to 1875 and abdicated to Francis Joseph I, who soon gained absolute power. Metternich was Council of State leader but resigned.
He lived 1816 to 1885 married Maria II [1836].
She lived 1819 to 1901 and was Hanover. Lord Melbourne and Palmerston were Prime Ministers in first half of her reign, before her husband Prince Albert died. Disraeli and Gladstone were Prime Ministers during last half of her reign. Her children married to ally with most of Europe. She had diamond jubilee [1897]. Her reign is Victorian Era.
She lived 1830 to 1904 and became queen at end of Carlist War [1839]. Carlists had revolted because her father Ferdinand VII did not follow Salid Law of succession, which allowed male heirs only, but Carlists under Don Carlos lost. She abdicated [1868].
He lived 1792 to 1849.
He lived 1795 to 1861 and put down 1848 Revolution. Treaty of Olmutz [1850] blocked his plan for German Union with Austria by forming German Confederation, with Austria as leader.
He lived 1808 to 1873. After trying to become emperor in 1836 and 1840, he returned to France, and assembly elected him president of Republic [1848], promising democracy and order. He dissolved legislature, crushed worker revolt, and ended Second Republic. He founded Second Empire of France [1852]. He granted more power to legislature and reigned in prosperity. He built Suez Canal [1859 to 1869], adventured in Mexico, got China Lands, fought Crimean War, restored the pope, and controlled Papal States. He fought Franco-Prussian War [1869 to 1870], but Prussia captured and deposed him.
He lived 1830 to 1916 and reorganized Austrian Empire [1867] as Austro-Hungary. He lost Lombardy and Venetia in Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks War, which Peace of Prague settled.
He lived 1817 to 1890.
He lived 1826 to 1860 and became archbishop [1851].
The Tsar liberator lived 1818 to 1881, was Romanov, and freed serfs [1861] but did not allow them to leave their villages without permission. He started local assembly {zemstvo} and new judicial system. He fought Crimean War over Russian influence in southeast Europe. Someone assassinated him.
He lived 1820 to 1873, was prince of Romania [1859 to 1866], and led Danubian Principalities of Walachia and Moldavia [1859].
He lived 1841 to 1921 and helped Montenegro gain independence from Bulgaria and Ottomans [1878].
He lived 1820 to 1878 and led wars of Risorgimento as Sardinia king, with Garibaldi as general. After victory over Papal States, Florence was capital. He ruled as constitutional monarch.
He lived 1797 to 1888 and was emperor of Germany [1871 to 1888] and king of Prussia [1861 to 1888]. His minister was Bismarck. Prussia and Austria fought Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein [1864]. German Empire began [1871].
He lived 1845 to 1913.
He lived 1835 to 1909.
He lived 1839 to 1914. Romania gained independence from Ottoman Empire [1881]. Romania had pogroms and laws against Jews.
He lived 1853 to 1927 and abdicated [1920] when republic formed.
He lived 1857 to 1885 and became king after Carlists revolted and lost.
He lived 1844 to 1900.
He lived 1845 to 1894, was Romanov, and promoted peace and industry. The Black Hundred beat people and robbed Jewish homes and shops.
He lived 1886 to 1941.
He lived 1861 to 1948 and was Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Bulgaria became independent [1908].
He lived 1859 to 1941, led German Empire, dismissed Bismarck [1890], built commerce, took colonies, and built up navy. He had Entente Cordiale with Britain and France. He formed Triple Entente of Britain, France, and Russia. He formed Triple Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Austro-Hungary. He had to abdicate after World War I.
He lived 1863 to 1908.
She lived 1880 to 1962.
He lived 1868 to 1917, was Romanov, and tried to keep the peace at Hague Conference. He lost Russo-Japanese War [1905] and then faced Revolution of 1905, which established legislature or Duma. He blocked Duma with his premier Stolypin but allowed some land reform. He led army in World War I. Rasputin came to control his family. Revolutionaries killed him after Russian Revolution [1917].
He lived 1869 to 1947 and appointed Mussolini [1922]. He dismissed Mussolini [1943] to make peace.
He lived 1841 to 1910, was Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and cooperated with Asquith in limiting House of Lords veto power. His era is Edwardian Era. The next rulers in the family changed house name to Windsor: George V, Edward VIII, George VI, and Elizabeth II.
He lived 1872 to 1957 and became king after Norway and Sweden split [1905].
He lived 1889 to 1932.
He lived 1887 to 1922.
He lived 1893 to 1920 and became king after Venizelos forced his father Constantine to abdicate, because Constantine had kept Greece neutral in World War I.
He lived 1894 to 1943, was dictator [1938 to 1943], and allied with Hitler.
He lived 1844 to 1921 and became king of Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia.
He lived 1890 to 1947 and became king by Treaty of Lausanne [1922]. Republic formed [1924]. He became king again as republic failed [1935 to 1947].
He lived 1895 to 1961 and was president [1925 to 1928] then king of Albania [1928 to 1939].
He lived 1888 to 1934. Someone killed him.
He lived 1893 to 1953.
He lived 1894 to 1972, abdicated to marry an American, and became Duke of Windsor [1936].
He lived 1921 to ?.
He lived 1930 to 1993 and ruled when Leopold III abdicated.
She lived 1926 to ?.
He lived 1938 to ? and ruled after Franco died.
Jericho began around a spring. New Stone Age people built wood and stone houses with plaster floors. Town walls had stacked brick masonry. It grew to eight acres [-8000] [Bronowski, 1974].
Town was in east Turkey.
Jericho had population 300, tower, and walls.
South-central Turkey sites {forked mound} had population 8000, with 2000 houses. They had men and animal paintings and sculptures. Catal Huyuk traded obsidian, salt, sulfur, and bitumen. It had one-story mudbrick houses with plaster, wood frames, and reed and mud roofs. Houses were clean. Houses connected, with no streets. People did activities on roofs. Wooden stairs went into houses through roof openings. It used obsidian tools. It was a trading center by a river on a fertile plain. It grew cereal grains and had sheep. Continuous cultivation used irrigation and animal manure, not slash-and-burn methods. It had fertility cults. Burials were under houses. For yearly ceremonies, they used men and women's heads. People abandoned town [-5800], for unknown reasons.
Jericho had population 3000, had watchtowers and ditches, and was obsidian, salt, sulfur, and bitumen trading center. Continuous cultivation used irrigation and animal manure, not slash-and-burn methods. Jericho had fertility cults.
Culture began.
Site that later became Babylon was first inhabited.
Culture began.
Town is on east Mediterranean coast. Ugarit is now Ras Shamra.
Town is on east Mediterranean coast.
Neolithic village was off coast of Scotland. It had ten small houses with flat stone for walls, large slabs for floors, and stone furniture. Orkney has no trees.
Neolithic planned town with plaza and wooden multifamily dwellings had 1000 people. People planted corn and domesticated dogs.
Disaster or invasion destroyed it nine times.
Neolithic culture was near Supe River, north of Lima. Town had 160 acres, plazas, reed-and-mud homes, irrigation system, and 500-feet wide and 60-feet tall rock pyramid. Buildings used reed sacks filled with stones {shicra}. Town traded with coast, 14 miles away, which supplied fish and shellfish. It used squash, cotton, sweet potatoes, and fruits but no maize. It had no gold or pottery but used bone flutes.
Town was ceremonial center with pyramid. There was fishing, cotton, corn, and jewelry.
It had ceremonial platforms.
.
It is in west Honduras.
Town was in south Mexico.
Town was early Chinese civilization.
Town started after Celts invaded Italy and pushed Etruscans south into central Italy, where native Samnites, Sabines, and Latins lived. Rome was first trading center and assembly place for Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans.
Town was near Lake Titicaca.
Jewish community in northeast Libya revolted against Rome.
London became main town of Britain.
Town was south of Kyoto.
Town is Kyoto.
City, in south Illinois, had rectangular flat-topped temple mounds (Cahokia Mounds) around squares or beside wide streets. Largest was Monk's Mound, over 30 meters high.
Town began in central Africa.
Town was in south Africa.
Town became prominent through salted and pickled fish, shipping, manufacturing, imported wool from England, imported wood and grain from Baltic, and exported textiles from Flanders and Picardy.
Cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Leiden, and Delft became prominent.
Nagasaki, under Christian king, invited Portuguese.
Town had shipping, manufacturing, letters of credit, and stock exchange. Letters of credit are discounted bills for loans. It had shipping in flutes or flyboats used for cargo. It had wool from England, salted and pickled fish, wood and grain from Baltic, and textiles in Flanders and Picardy.
France built fort.
France built fort on Mississippi River.
France built fort on Lake Erie.
France built fort on Mississippi River.
Treaty was between Ramses II of Egypt and Hattusilis III of Hittite Empire.
Treaty partitioned Frank lands into France as west Frankish kingdom, under Charles II the Bald, and Germany as east Frankish kingdom, under Louis the German.
After Louis the German fought Charles the Bald, treaty gave Lotharingia to Germany, which Louis the German ruled. After that, feudalism and manorial system began, and kings declined in power.
Treaty gave power to elect bishops to pope, with veto power by emperor of Holy Roman Empire.
Treaty gave freedom to Lombard League towns and independence from the pope to Holy Roman Empire.
Barons and prelates forced King John to sign Magna Charta. Magna Charta gave more rights to freemen, including barons, lesser knights, and burgesses. It guaranteed trial by jury, alleviated some taxing powers of king, and protected baron property. Magna Charta did not give rights to serfs. Committee of 25 barons enforced it. Magna Charta is part of British Constitution, which includes many other documents.
Treaty ended England's involvement in Hundred Years War.
England got Aquitaine.
King Edward III of England and King Ferdinand and Queen Eleanor of Portugal established alliance. It is oldest treaty still in effect.
Treaty gave Normandy to England from France. Henry V became heir to French throne. He married Katherine, Charles VI of France's daughter. War resumed when Henry V died [1422].
France got Duchy of Maine. England broke treaty but lost.
Spain got West Indies, Central America, and South America, and Portugal got Brazil and Africa.
Princes in empire chose Lutheran or Catholic Church for state.
Treaty gave Sicily, Naples, and Milan to Spain.
Spain united with Portugal.
Treaty of Vienna between Hungary and Ottoman Empire gave religious freedom to southeast Europe.
Spain lost Portugal.
Treaty ended Thirty Years War and ended authority of Holy Roman Empire, so 300 princes freely held lands in Germany and Italy. Holy Roman Empire then was mainly Austria, still ruled by Hapsburgs. Duchy of Prussia was in north Germany. Elector of Brandenburg gained. Switzerland became fully independent, with 13 cantons ruled by oligarchies. United Provinces in Netherlands became independent.
Peace of Westphalia established modern international law, by recognizing absolute jurisdiction of nations in their territories.
France took part of Spain.
Poland lost land to Sweden.
Poland lost land to Russia.
Treaty ended Dutch Wars among France, Netherlands, and England, with Netherlands free and Protestant.
Venice got Dalmatia. Poland got Bosnia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and Jedisan. Holy Roman Empire got Hungary. Ottoman Empire lost.
Treaty joined England, including Wales and Ireland, and Scotland as Great Britain.
Treaty ended War of the Spanish Succession, which started after death of Charles II of Spain. Spain and Austria were against Britain and France. It gave Milan to Austria and Sicily to Savoy. Philip V became Bourbon king of Spain, not Holy Roman Empire emperor. Hapsburgs of Austria got Spanish Netherlands from Spain. Spanish Netherlands had Belgium and Luxembourg.
Holy Roman Empire gained Hungary and Transylvania from Ottoman Empire, to end Austro-Turkish War.
Savoy traded Sicily to Austria for Sardinia.
Treaty set border between Ottoman Empire and Austria, keeping Hungary for Austria. Ottoman Empire got back Bulgaria, Bosnia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia. Russia did not build Black-Sea navy.
Treaty gave England all USA and Canada, except New Orleans for France. It gave Florida to Spain.
Stanislaus II, king of Poland, accepted Russian aid against Prussia and Austria and had to accept Poland partition. Russia got all of Latvia, Belorussia, Lithuania, and Ukraine.
Russia won control of Tatars of Crimea.
Treaty ended American Revolution. Benjamin Franklin, for USA, negotiated with Britain.
Ottoman Empire got Belgrade. Austria got Bosnia.
Russians got up to Dniester River from Ottoman Empire.
Russia, Prussia, and Austria divided it.
Poland was split among Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
Treaty ended French Revolutionary War in Italy. Austria got Venice and Dalmatia. Cisalpine Republic in north Italy began, with Milan as capital.
Napoleon negotiated peace with Catholic Church.
Treaty ended war of Austria and France.
Treaty ended war of France and England.
Treaty restored Switzerland confederation.
France negotiated peace with Russia and Prussia.
Treaty set Sikh boundaries in India.
Talleyrand worked for mild terms and Bourbon-king restoration.
Treaty ended war between Ottoman Empire and Russia. Moldavia and Walachia became Russian protectorates. Greece became independent of Turkey.
Treaty blocked German Union and restored German Federation, which included Prussia and Austria. Austria dominated it.
Treaty gave Chinese right to come to USA.
Great Sioux Reservation created in South Dakota, North Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, and Nebraska.
Treaty formally ended Franco-Prussian War between France and Prussia.
Act ended Russo-Turkish War [1876 to 1878]. Ottoman Empire got Macedonia again. Montenegro and Serbia became independent. Greater Bulgaria divided into north Bulgaria, Rumelia in east Bulgaria, and Macedonia under Ottoman Empire. Bosnia went to Austro-Hungary.
Treaty ended first Balkan War. It gave Montenegro and Macedonia to Bulgaria. Greater Bulgaria included Bulgaria, Rumelia, and Macedonia, as it had earlier.
Treaty ended Sino-Japanese War.
Treaty ended Spanish-American War. USA got Philippines, east tip of Cuba, and Puerto Rico.
Union of South Africa became independent as British commonwealth and established apartheid laws separating whites, blacks, and mixed.
Treaty ended Russian participation in World War I. Bolsheviks controlled European Russia.
Treaty ended war on Eastern Front between Germany and Romania. Romania annexed Bessarabia. However, in November, Romania warred again.
Treaty ended World War I on Western Front on November 11 at 11 am.
Paris Peace Conference started in January 1919. Treaty created Weimar Republic in Germany, which faced unemployment, inflation, and extremism. Italy gained Trieste and Tyrol. Greece got west Thrace and European Turkey. Japan got German islands in Pacific Ocean.
Treaty established current Austria and Romania.
Bulgaria lost territory.
Treaty negotiated peace between Russia and Poland, after Poland went to war to get more eastern territory. Finland, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania became independent. Russia lost Bessarabia. Vilma went from Lithuania to Poland.
Austria and Hungary became republics. Czechoslovakia became republic, and Tomas Masaryk and Eduard Benes were first two presidents. Upper Silesia went to Poland. Romania got Transylvania, Banat, and Bukovina.
Ottoman Empire was left with only Istanbul and Anatolia.
Treaty between Turkey and Russia allowed Turkish Republic under Kemal Ataturk.
Treaty assured borders of China and kept Open Door Policy.
Treaty ended war between Greece and Turkey, and Allies signed it. Thrace went to Turkey. Several million Greeks, Turks, and Bulgarians moved.
Treaty transferred port of Susak from Italy to Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia kingdom.
Treaty required fewer reparations from Germany.
Treaty agreed to negotiate differences among France, Britain, USA, and Germany and so removed most restrictions on Germany. Weimar Republic had evacuated Ruhr and paid reparations.
Treaty gave control of Vatican City to the pope. Roman Curia was papal court.
Treaty set Germany's west boundary and put Germany in League of Nations, with approval of France, Britain, and USA.
Treaty partitioned Czechoslovakia. Germany got Bohemia and Moravia and demanded Danzig and Polish Corridor. Adolf Hitler signed for Germany. Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of England, said he wanted "peace in our time" {peace in our time} from Axis powers. Others accused him of appeasement.
Hitler gave Russia, under Stalin, east Poland, Baltic republics, north Bokovina, and Bessarabia.
Treaty began NATO or North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
Allies agreed on European territory.
Treaty established United Nations charter.
Treaty furthered Pan-Americanism.
League led by Egypt included most Arab and Moslem states.
Allies finalized peace with Italy, which became a republic. Italian parties were Catholics, Communists, and Socialists.
Countries signed Benelux Customs Union treaty [1944]. Benelux Economic Union replaced it [1960].
Treaty formed Organization of American States (OAS). It settled war between Nicaragua and Costa Rica and Dominican-Republic question.
Treaty grouped communist East European nations. League included Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany, and Russia. Kaliningrad or Königsberg was in Russia. Oder-Niesse line divided East Germany from Poland.
Russian and Chinese Communist parties negotiated the border.
Southeastern Asia Treaty Organization started as Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty or Manila Pact (SEATO).
West Germany became sovereign and joined NATO. East Germany became free and joined Warsaw Pact of east European nations.
First, it was Middle East Treaty Organization (METO) or Baghdad Pact.
Alliance involved all nations in Western Hemisphere, except Cuba.
Willy Brandt had policy of Ostpolitik, leading to Treaty of Moscow [1970], Treaty of Warsaw [1970], Four Power Agreement on Berlin [1971], Transit Agreement [1972], and Basic Treaty [1972]. Both nations then joined United Nations. The nations unified [1990].
Cuba reentered.
Laws established procedures for reporting on human rights and opened East Europe to communications from outside.
Anwar Sadat of Egypt [assassinated 1981] and Moshe Dayan of Israel signed peace treaty.
Treaty established 200-mile territorial waters.
USA and Russia reached agreement on intermediate range missile reductions in Europe.
USA and Russia agreed on weapons and missiles.
Greeks destroyed Troy after ten-year war. Legendarily began when Paris took the Greek queen Helen (Helen of Troy) by force to Troy and ended when Greeks sacked Troy after hiding in Trojan Horse.
Greek city-states, led by Athens, united against Persia.
Carthage tried to take Sicily and Syracuse but did not.
Greece defeated Persia under Xerxes to end Persian Wars.
In some city-states, rich oligarchs ruled. In democratic city-states, citizens ruled. Sparta and Corinth led Peloponnesian cities, favoring oligarchies, against wealthy Athens, favoring democratic cities. First, Corcyra (Corfu) rebelled against Corinth and then Athens, led by Pericles, helped it. Corinth asked Sparta for help. Peace came [-421] but failed as Athens moved against Syracuse, which allied with Sparta. They besieged Athens, which surrendered. Sparta then asked for Persian aid and won Peloponnesian War. It used mercenaries. Alcibiades was Athenian general and friend of Socrates. Merchants grew rich. Oligarchies took over democracies. It ruined Athenian farmland.
Egypt revolted against Persia.
Spring and Autumn Period ended [-475], and later Jin dynasty lands became three kingdoms [-403]. It ended when Qin dynasty unified China.
Rome completed conquest of Italy and ruled it until end of Roman Empire.
Ptolemy I, ruler of Egypt as former general of Alexander, defeated Antigonus I of Macedon.
Sicily was at first ruled by Carthage. Rome defeated Carthage and took most of Sicily. Hamilcar Barca led Carthage, and Scipio led Rome. Rome controlled Italy south of Arno River.
Hannibal, Hamilcar Barca's son, led Carthage army from New Carthage in Spain [-218]. He led cavalry and elephants over Alps and won in Po River valley at Trasimende [-217], in south Italy at Capua, and at Cannae [-216] but did not take Rome. Carthage lost New Carthage [-209]. He withdrew to aid his brother and then to defend Carthage against Scipio but lost at Zama [-202]. Rome then controlled west Mediterranean.
Liu family ended civil war and started Han dynasty.
Philip V of Macedon lost to Rome, which had helped Athens against Macedon.
Antiochus III of Seleucids in Persia and Philip V of Macedon lost to Rome.
Perseus of Macedon lost to Rome.
Cato the Elder or Cato the Censor helped start war. He believed in the old virtues and was miser. It ended when Rome under Scipio Africanus Minor (the Younger) sacked Carthage. After Punic Wars, Romans created large estates that used slaves from poor-peasant lands. Peasants came to cities. Soldiers became paid professionals.
After Caius Marius and Cinna, for the people, took Rome while Sulla, for Senate, was in Greece, Sulla won civil war.
Julius Caesar of Roman Republic fought Gauls in France and gained power.
Palestinian Jews revolted against Romans led by Vespasian. After starving Jerusalem and destroying temple, Rome subdued Jews at Masada.
After Emperor Nero died, there was war.
Hadrian built wall to defend province of Britain. Scots and Picts breached wall twice.
Roman Empire had civil war.
People revolted against Rome.
Aurelian Walls surrounded Rome.
Buddhist priests and Fujiwara family were powerful. Capital was at Heian (Kyoto).
War began under Pope Urban II and Peter the Hermit at Council of Clermont and encouraged pilgrimages to Holy Land. Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaler began during Crusades.
Bernard of Clairvaux preached for it because Zangi captured County of Edessa. Louis VII of France led it.
Christian armies of Second Crusade lost to Turks in Asia Minor.
Minamoto Yorimoto of Minamoto clan defeated Tiara clan.
Richard I of England and Philip II of France led Christian forces [1189]. Richard I of England and Saladin negotiated a truce [1192].
Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople and set up state, until Osmanli Turks defeated Christian soldiers and restored Byzantine Empire.
Frederick II of Holy Roman Empire peacefully got Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem by treaty.
Gunpowder came to Europe.
Barons under Simon de Montfort defeated Henry III of France.
Sicilian Vespers revolt sent Sicily to King of Aragon.
Edward III, king of England, claimed France and began the 100 Years War. Joan of Arc and De Guesclin led France.
Empire had civil war.
Peasants revolted north of Paris.
Rebellion was against Peter I of Castile, who also fought Charles V of France. Edward the Black Prince, Duke of Cornwall, helped him.
Bertrand du Guesclin, constable of France, drove England out of France.
Peasants led by Wat Tyler marched to London to protest tax to King Richard II. They committed crimes on way, ruined king's house, and murdered Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Treasurer. Someone killed Wat Tyler, but Parliament cancelled tax and pardoned rebels. However, soon situation became as it was before.
Protestant Czechs under John Huss and fundamentalist peasant Taborites of Moravian Church fought against Catholic Germans and Ultraquists. Ultraquist nobles backed some Church rites. Sigismund, a Catholic, was nominally king. It ended when George of Podebad negotiated peace.
War ended as England lost at Castillon.
Ottoman Empire defeated Venice.
Hosokawa and Yamana clans fought civil war.
Ikko Buddhists revolted.
France and Spain fought over Italy [1494]. Switzerland defeated Charles the Bold of Burgundy [1495].
Peasants, under renegade samurai warriors, joined against lords.
Peasants revolted in Hungary, lost, and became serfs.
Manko Inka, Huayna Capac's grandson, and other Inca rebelled against Spanish. Tupaq Amaru I was last Inca emperor.
Transylvania princes, mainly Bocskay, revolted against Rudolf II of Hapsburg and Catholics and got west Hungary. Ottoman Empire got central Hungary. Hapsburgs of Austria got part of west Hungary.
Protestant Reformation caused war.
Protestant minority fought with Catholic majority as nobles fought weak Valois kings.
Catholics and Protestants fought.
Privateers, some anti-Catholic noblemen, opposed Spanish during Revolt of the Netherlands but terrorized everybody. They captured Brielle [1572]. Rebel army was Geuzen or Beggars. William I of Orange first encouraged them [1568] but later jailed some leaders.
8,000 Protestants died.
Duke of Guise led revolt against Henry III of France.
Guy Fawkes tried to blow up Parliament and King James I, to arouse the people.
After nobles deposed Boris Godunov, Poland invaded and aided man pretending to be Dimitri, Ivan IV's son. More pretenders appeared and ruled.
Truce held.
Protestant Bohemian princes, acting as Bohemian diet, deposed Catholic Hapsburg emperor Ferdinand II of Holy Roman Empire and Austria and elected Frederick the Winter King, starting Thirty Years War [1618]. Protestant Reformation had already divided Holy Roman Empire. Emperor won at first, but France then assisted rebels. England fought Holy Roman Empire, too. Spain joined Thirty Years War on side of Holy Roman Empire and Hapsburgs [1620]. War between Holland and Spain merged into Thirty Years War [1621]. Holland was on side of France and England.
Cromwell and Puritans defeated Charles I of England.
Rebellion was against Poland.
Oliver Cromwell and Puritans defeated Charles II and Scots at Dunbar [1649]. Oliver Cromwell won at Worcester [1651], to end civil war, and established Commonwealth.
Farmers revolted against colony.
Revolution ended rule of James II, Catholic, in favor of Protestant William of Orange.
First French and Indian War started when France attacked British colonies.
Britain pushed France northward and then out of east USA and Canada.
Russia and Ottoman Empire warred intermittently and slowly gave Russia Crimea, Ukraine, Bessarabia, and Caucasus [1829].
War ended with defeat of Louis XIV of France by Holy Roman Empire, Holland, England, Spain, and German states. Austria got Hungary from Ottoman Empire.
Second French and Indian War lost France more territory to England.
Southeast Africa had nine wars.
Cossacks rebelled against Peter I of Russia, who then took away their freedom.
Francis II Rakoczy and Transylvania princes rebelled against Hapsburgs of Holy Roman Empire and Austria, who stopped rebellion and took Transylvania and Hungary.
Austria took Belgrade from Ottoman Empire [1717].
War gave Sicily, Naples, and Parma to Spain under Bourbons. France lost, Holy Roman Empire lost, and Poland won.
War was about English right to trade at Portobello. Austria and Britain were against Spain, France, and Prussia.
Frederick II of Prussia claimed Silesia from Maria Theresa of Austria [1745]. Philip V of Spain fought on side of Austria. It ended [1748] with Maria Theresa as queen of Austria. Austria controlled Milan, Mantua, Tuscany, and Modena in Italy. Savoy controlled Papal States and Sardinia. Venice, Genoa, and Lucca were independent. Silesia went to Prussia.
Third French and Indian War removed France from Canada and northeast USA after defeat by England.
Last French and Indian War, in which Britain won Quebec and western French forts. George Washington lost at Fort Necessity and then aided General Braddock.
Prussia and Holy Roman Empire fought. England, France, Spain, Poland, and Russia participated.
British soldiers fired at crowd of colonists and were later tried in court.
Rhode Island men torched HMS Gaspee, sent by Britain to enforce trade laws and prevent smuggling, exploding its powder magazine.
Colonists threw tea that was subject to British tax from ships into Boston harbor.
USA failed to arouse Canada against British. USA took Montreal, lost Quebec, and went back to USA.
General Clark of USA defeated American natives.
USA under Nathaniel Greene defeated Britain under Cornwallis.
Netherlands fought against Joseph II of Holy Roman Empire (Austria) and his reforms.
Revolution began on July 14, which is now Bastille Day, with storming of Bastille prison. Causes were liberal trends of Enlightenment, France bankruptcy, subsequent taxes, mercantile system, and disparity between rich and poor.
French Assembly declared war on Austria [1792]. Early French defeats led to taking Tuileries Palaces, murdering Swiss Guards, giving more power to Paris Commune, and electing National Convention. French Revolutionary Army took Netherlands and formed Batavian Republic [1795]. France took Switzerland and created Helvetic Republic [1798].
Napoleon put down noble's Vendemaire Revolt against Directory and gained fame.
Mohammed Ali, pasha of Egypt, defeated Ottoman Empire.
Napoleon of France captured the Bourbon King Charles IV of Spain and his son Ferdinand VII [1808].
Simon Bolivar, the Liberator, led South America in war against Spain. He eventually won at Ayacucho [1824].
Hidalgo y Costilla led revolt of Mexico against Spain.
William Henry Harrison won Battle of Thames in Ontario, Canada, giving USA control of Northwest. Francis Scott Key wrote National Anthem.
Hungary regained Croatia from France.
Serbs led by Milosh Obrenovich rebelled against Ottoman Empire.
Maori tribes fought with muskets.
Greece under Ypsilantis fought Ottoman Empire and Egypt and won at Navarino or Pylos.
Santa Anna and others fought for leadership of Mexico after Iturbide left.
Wars added Burma to British India.
John VI of Portugal died, starting Miguelist Wars over his successor.
Belgium, including most of Luxembourg, seceded from Netherlands.
King suspended constitution after insurrection.
MacKenzie rebelled against Britain in north Canada, and Papineau rebelled against Britain in south Canada.
Britain sold opium from India in south China, but Manchu or Ch'ing Dynasty banned it and burned shipment [1839]. Britain won Opium War with Ch'ing Dynasty of China [1842]. Opium War gave Hong Kong to Britain and allowed free trade in China. Missionaries came to China.
Ranjit Singh of Sikhs took Punjab and Kashmir from Britain.
Sam Houston of USA defeated Santa Anna of Mexico and USA gained Texas.
Protestant diet in Switzerland dissolved Sonderbund union of Catholic cantons, causing Sonderbund War, which Catholics quickly lost.
Greece revolted against Austria.
Sicily revolted against Kingdom of Naples.
Revolution deposed Louis Philippe. Second Republic formed.
Revolution started in Berlin, but Frederick William IV ended it in November. Other German kingdoms wrote constitutions during this time.
Revolution lost to Second Republic.
Sikhs lost all land to Britain.
England defeated Russia and prevented Russian access to Black Sea.
Brahmin Bengal soldiers in England's army rebelled and ended puppet rule of Mogul Dynasty and British East India Company. Britain began direct rule of India.
Francis Joseph II of Austria lost Lombardy to Italy.
Carlists revolted in Spain but lost.
Risorgimento was period of Italy unification [1815 to 1870]. Papal States lost Bologna, Romagna, Marches, and Umbria to Sardinia under Garibaldi [1860]. Garibaldi, from Sardinia, took Lombardy, Parma, Modena, and Two Sicilies from Papal States and gave them to Victor Immanuel II [1861].
North was states above Mason-Dixon line separating Pennsylvania and Maryland. South was states below. 600,000 died. USA population was 30,000,000 people.
Insurrection led to more Russian influence.
John Chivington and Colorado Volunteers attacked Black Kettle, Cheyenne, and Arapaho.
Bismarck of Prussia started it, and Prussia defeated Austria.
Don Carlos lost revolt.
Prussia quickly defeated France.
Don Carlos lost revolt.
Clans revolted against emperor, who wanted westernization, industrialization, and reform, but they lost. Emperor got all clan lands. Feudalism ended.
Bulgaria, under Alexander of Battenberg, got Rumelia from Serbia.
USA 7th Cavalry massacred Minniconjou Sioux under Big Foot.
Japan defeated China.
Britain defeated Boers.
Society of Harmonious Fists secret society attacked Christians in China, and British retaliated. China lost government control to British. Japan also took land.
USA put down revolt led by Aguinaldo of Philippines.
Russia did not withdraw from Manchuria after Boxer Rebellion, and Japan forced Russia to leave Manchuria.
Strikes and mutinies, especially on the ship Potemkin, led to Duma parliament [1906] and to land reform, but Stolypin [assassinated 1917] blocked Duma.
Austro-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Hercegovina and agitated Russia and Serbia, which was trying to unify region's Slavs.
New battleship type countered German navy buildup.
Japan annexed Korea.
Madero led revolt against Diaz, causing civil war. Madero, Emil Zapata, Huerta, Carranza, and Obregon fought for revolt.
Sun Yat-sen led overthrow of Ch'ing Dynasty.
Ottoman Empire lost Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece.
Bulgaria started it to gain Macedonia, but Serbia won. Greece got Crete and southeast Macedonia.
War began when Gavrilo Princip, member of plot by Serbian secret society, assassinated the Hapsburg Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo, Bosnia, in June 1914. Austria-Hungary gave ultimatum to Serbia in July, which accepted it, but then Austro-Hungary declared war on Serbia a week later. Russia mobilized. In August, Germany declared war on Russia, declared war on France, and invaded neutral Belgium. England declared war on Germany. Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia in August.
It had tanks and poison gas.
Allies or Entente were England, France, Czech, Serbia, Montenegro, Russia, Japan, China, Italy [1915], Romania [1916], USA [1917], Greece [1918], and Portugal [1918]. Central Powers were Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria [1915], and Ottoman Empire. Neutral countries were Albania, Spain, Belgium, Switzerland, Holland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Persia, and Arabia.
Although Belgium was neutral under King Albert I, Germany invaded Belgium.
British navy blockaded German ports on North Sea.
Ireland under Patrick Pearse rebelled against England. Sinn Fein Party under Eamon De Valera started Irish Assembly (Dail Eireann) and declared independence. English Black and Tans defeated Irish nationalists and Britain occupied Ireland after rebellion.
Austria defeated Albania under dictator Essad Pasha.
Russia defeated Austria.
U-boat submarines blockaded Britain and sank all vessels.
Arabia revolted against Ottoman Empire.
Russian Revolution {February Revolution} ended Eastern Front.
War and economy caused revolution. St. Petersburg strikers and food rioters took capital, and soldiers refused to stop them. They forced Nicholas-II abdication. Provisional government formed under Lvov. Lvov resigned when parliament {Duma} voted for peace in World War I. Kerensky then led Socialist Revolutionary government.
Bolsheviks and Mensheviks fought civil war, with Bolsheviks taking St. Petersburg in November {October Revolution} {Bolshevik Revolution}. Bolsheviks declared end to private land ownership and began terror campaign. Bolsheviks also fought with Poland. Lenin became government head.
Germany attacked Western Front.
Romania annexed Bessarabia by Bucharest Treaty between Germany and Romania.
Revolt in Austria and Germany led to abdication by Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany.
War began after Sun-Yat-Sen left presidency. Kuomintang was in south. Warlords backed government in north.
Bela Kun tried Communist takeover of Hungary, but Romania ended it.
Sailors revolted and demanded human rights.
Greece invaded Asia Minor but lost to Ataturk of Turkey.
Adolf Hitler tried to take over Munich but went to jail, where he wrote his book Mein Kampf or My Struggle.
Ferdinand died, and Carol II and Michael fought.
Anti-Semitic terrorists gained power.
War started when Japan took Manchuria and set up state of Manchukuo, restoring last emperor of China. Japan occupied north China to Great Wall [1933], uniting communists and nationalists of China in opposition. Japan attacked again [1937] and took north China, south China ports, and part of Indochina [1940]. By 1943, Japan took Burma, Siam, Indochina, Malaya, Indonesia (Dutch East Indies), and Philippines.
Japan already had Korea, Formosa, and Marianas, Marshall, and Caroline Islands, by Treaty of Versailles [1919].
Italy invaded and took Ethiopia [1936].
Germany occupied Rhineland and built forts, violating treaties.
The people elected radical and Communist republicans to Spanish legislature. Falange forces joined Insurgent forces to fight republic. Italy helped Falange.
Trade war between England and Ireland ended.
Germany occupied Austria in March 1938, when Mussolini withdrew his opposition. Union {Anschluss} with Germany began [1940].
Russia invaded Finland and soon took part of Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.
Axis Powers were Germany, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Romania. Japan allied with Axis. Allies were England and France, and later Russia and USA. China allied with Allies. Spain, Switzerland, Sweden, Arabia, Eire, and Turkey were neutral. 35,000,000 Europeans died, including 20,000,000 in Russia. Hitler altered war rules, using overwhelming and indiscriminate force {total war}. He annexed territory, moved people, exterminated people, took booty, used reprisals, and enslaved war prisoners.
War began as Germany under Hitler invaded Poland, ostensibly because it had refused him Danzig. Russia soon invaded Poland from east.
Germany invaded Belgium, ruled by King Leopold III, and Netherlands, though both were neutral. Germany forced British evacuation at Dunkirk. Germany signed armistice with France in June 1940, taking north France and leaving fascist French government at Vichy in south France.
Britain won victory in air over English Channel, preventing invasion by Germany.
Rommel (the Desert Fox) of Germany took north Africa from British and French.
Axis attacked Yugoslavia after Yugoslav military removed pro-Axis government. Peter II of Yugoslavia fled. Italy and Germany took Yugoslavia and Greece.
Finland joined Germany in attacking Russia. Germany moved close to Moscow before winter, besieged Stalingrad and Petrograd, and took Ukraine.
Germany declared war on USA.
Germany took over south France.
Allied bombing of Germany began.
Germany invaded Russia and took all Poland [1942]. Russia conquered Poland and set up provisional government in Lublin [1944].
Finland gave up fighting Russia and fought Germany.
Russia conquered Hungary.
USA bombing of Japan began.
USA fought Japan.
Allies occupied Austria, and they signed peace treaty later [1955].
Britain recovered Burma from Japan.
USA captured Okinawa from Japan.
Russia invaded against Japan.
Japan surrendered to USA, ending World War II in Pacific, and MacArthur occupied Japan. China got all territory it had before, except Hong Kong and Macao.
Royalists and communists fought. Plebiscite [1950] voted against George II, whom his son Paul replaced.
USA soldiers withdrew [1947]. Nationalists started a constitution and elected Chiang Kai-Shek president. Mao Tse-Tung led Communists to victory in civil war [1948]. Chang Kai-Shek led Nationalists to Formosa.
Russia started blockade. Berlin Airlift of Allies broke it.
King Farouk I of Egypt and Arab League attacked new state of Israel after Britain left. 700,000 Palestinians became refugees. Oil pipeline ran from Iraq through Jordan and Syria to Haifa.
North Korea invaded South Korea. United Nations sent USA troops to fight. China intervened against United Nations when Americans approached Manchuria. Douglas MacArthur led United Nations forces in Korean War until dismissed by Truman over how to fight war [1952].
North Korea, China, and United Nations signed at Panmunjeom.
Russia crushed revolution and selected Kadar to lead government.
Russia controlled riots, and Gomulka became premier of Poland.
After Egypt nationalized Suez Canal, short occupation by Israel, Britain, and France followed.
Sumatra revolted against Indonesia.
Moslem and Christians fought.
Sukarno won and assumed broad powers.
Catholics and Protestants fought.
India took Goa, Damao, and Diu from Portugal.
Syria revolted from Egypt, ending United Arab Republic.
Wall split east and west Berlin.
Border disputes between China and India erupted into war. China took land.
Tibet revolted against China but failed.
Indonesia attacked Malaysia but failed, weakening Sukarno.
USA sent advisors [1963] and then soldiers [1965]. North Vietnamese launched a Lunar New Year {Tet} offensive [1968]. Secret negotiations started [1970]. Countries signed cease-fire in Paris [1973]. 50,000 Americans died.
It was between Hausa and Igbo in south Nigeria.
Neglect caused East Pakistan to rebel against West Pakistan, and India and West Pakistan warred over border.
Israel took Sinai Peninsula up to Suez Canal from Egypt, West Bank of Jordan River from Jordan, and Golan Heights at border with Syria from Syria.
Russia invaded Czechoslovakia to end reforms of Alexander Dubcek.
Socialist Ba'ath Party defeated Moslem Brotherhood.
Turkey invaded Cyprus against Greece and took north Cyprus.
Arabs won back territory.
Kurds rebelled against Iraq, who stopped rebellion.
Russian soldiers supported puppet government against Islamic rebels.
Iraq attacked Iran. 1,000,000 people died in war.
Palestinians rebelled against Israeli rule {infitada}.
Angola and South Africa halted war.
Army put down protests by Student Union in Tiananmen Square. Goddess of Democracy stood there.
Bosnia seceded from Yugoslavia.
Rebellion was against Serbia. Later, Croatia became independent.
Iraq lost after it occupied Kuwait [1990] and faced economic controls and weapons inspections.
History can have patterns, evolutions, and regularities, which convey meaning to history {philosophy of history}. History can reflect divine purpose or plan. History can be expression of Reason or Spirit in matter. Economic forces can determine history. History can have cycles.
History progressively realizes one self that hypothesizes itself {self-positing mind} as mind or spirit {Hegelian idealism}.
History can have patterns {historical rationalism}.
No one can know if history has patterns {historical skepticism}.
The only historical patterns are ones that people imagine or impose on history {historical subjectivism}.
History can have no pattern {nihilism} {historical irrationalism}.
He lived -484 to -425.
He lived -460 to -410 and explained Peloponnesian Wars.
He lived -444 to -357.
He lived -59 to 17.
He lived 39 to 65.
He lived 46 to 120.
He lived 75 to 160 and wrote about Roman Empire.
He lived -145 to -90 and wrote dynasty histories.
He studied legends, customs, and arts.
He lived 56 to 117.
He lived 95 to 165.
Later Plutarch-of-Delphi Moralia editions included unknown authors, called Pseudo-Plutarch.
He was Chinese Buddhist historian who traveled through India and Ceylon [399 to 414].
He lived 839 to 923.
He was vizier at Bokhara [946 to 973].
He lived ? to 957 and wrote world history.
He lived 1229 to 1298 and wrote about saints.
He lived 1332 to 1406, was Sufi and politician, and was "father of science of history". History analyzes development of culture through social, political, and economic patterns and causes {unran}.
He lived 1633 to 1703.
He lived 1709 to 1784.
He lived 1740 to 1795.
He lived 1737 to 1794.
He lived 1675 to 1755.
He lived 1795 to 1881. Heroes make history {great man theory}, not social forces.
He lived 1821 to 1890 and translated Kama Sutra and Arabian Nights.
He lived 1873 to 1938.
He lived 1886 to 1963.
He lived 1888 to 1935 and helped King Faisal I of Egypt defeat Ottoman Empire in the Arab revolt.
He lived 1879 to 1940 and was Bolshevik leader. Stalin exiled him to Mexico and murdered him there.
He lived 1885 to 1981.
She lived 1867 to 1963.
He lived 1889 to 1975.
He lived 1889 to 1943, was positivist, and wrote about Roman Britain.
Epistemology
Philosophy, history, and all thinking depend on fundamental assumptions {absolute presupposition}, which form perspective. Absolute presuppositions are neither true nor false. People need to imagine previous-epoch thoughts and actions to understand their practical problems. The idea of agency is basis of the idea of causality.
He lived 1907 to ?.
She lived 1912 to 1989.
He lived 1903 to 1983.
She lived 1932 to ?.
He lived 1928 to 2003.
He lived 1805 to 1859.
He lived 1823 to 1893.
He lived 1878 to 1949.
He lived 1890 to 1971.
He lived 1878 to 1967.
He lived 1902 to 1998.
He lived 1917 to ?.
He lived 1904 to 2005.
He lived 1899 to 1978 and wrote about USA civil war.
He lived 1904 to 1977.
He lived 1915 to 1986.
He lived 1887 to 1976.
.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225