Particles {boson}| {messenger particle}, such as photons, gluons, W and Z bosons, and gravitons, can carry force fields. Gravitons, photons, mesons, gluons, W particles, Z particles, and all exchange particles have integer spins and follow Bose-Einstein statistics. Unlike fermions, two bosons can have same quantum numbers. Rather than always having same units, boson quanta can vary in energy. Fermions and bosons account for all particles.
Spin
Some bosons {scalar boson}, such as Higgs particle and W particle, have zero spin. Some bosons {vector boson}, such as photon, graviton, and Z particle, have non-zero integer spin.
states
Bosons in same state tend to cluster together. Identical particles with same spin can interfere constructively if their waves are in phase. Identical particles with same spin can interfere destructively if their waves are in opposite phase. Therefore, if boson is present, another same-type-boson probability is greater.
fields
Interacting particles use field to store energy and momentum while they send signals between particles and cause interaction. Field preserves conservation laws. Fields carry signals as bosons, which carry energy and momentum to distant objects. Local interactions caused by boson exchanges mediate all action-at-a-distance.
statistics
Bosons and fermions with the same quantum numbers are exactly the same, so two different photons or electrons with the same quantum numbers are exactly the same. Because they have no relativistic effects on each other, bosons have symmetric wave functions: f(b+) = f(b-), where b+ has spin +1 and b- has spin -1. Different bosons can have the same state, because bosons do not attract or repel each other by relativistic effects. Their changing fields are symmetrical and cancel. Because they have relativistic effects on each other, fermions have anti-symmetric wave functions: f(e+) = -f(e-), where e+ has spin +1/2 and e- has spin -1/2. For two fermions, wavefunction is anti-symmetric for fermion exchange: f(e+,e-) = -f(e-,e+). For helium atoms (with two electrons in lowest orbital), with no time changes, the ground-state wavefunction is anti-symmetric, but the main (zero-order) wavefunction is symmetric, so the spin wavefunction is anti-symmetric. Electrons with same spin cannot be in same state (Pauli exclusion principle), because f(e+,e+) = -f(e+,e+) can be true only if f(e+,e+) = 0. Different fermions have different states, because fermions repel each other by relativistic effects. Changing electric fields induce magnetic fields that affect moving electric charges. Their changing fields are anti-symmetrical and do not cancel.
Strong-nuclear-force-exchange bosons {gluon}| have eight types, mass 0, spin 1, and charge 0. They do not feel electromagnetism or weak force. They affect gluons and quarks.
Gravity-exchange bosons {graviton}| have mass 0, spin 2, and charge 0. Perhaps, gravitons differ over time, as space phase changes. Perhaps, at high energies, space and time decouple.
Stress-energy density makes virtual gravitons. By tidal-force induction, those gravitons make adjacent virtual gravitons and then become zero again, so virtual gravitons propagate through space at light speed. General-relativity gravity fields are virtual-graviton streams.
When masses have tidal forces, tidal-force accelerations make real gravitons that travel outward in that direction as gravitational waves. Real-graviton tidal-force accelerations induce adjacent virtual gravitons that go back to zero and make adjacent real gravitons, so propagating gravitons through space. Tidal-force accelerations push existing virtual-graviton streams sideways, putting a kink in them.
A weak-force field {Higgs field} is evenly distributed throughout space and interacts with W bosons, Z bosons [1983], Higgs bosons, quarks, and leptons and so associates mass with them. Without Higgs field, particles affected by the weak force have no mass. Even in empty space, the Higgs field has non-zero negative value {vacuum expectation value}. The Higgs field interacts with particles affected by the weak force, differently for right-handed and left-handed particles, and so its existence causes, below critical temperature, weak-force spontaneous symmetry breakdown. Without Higgs field, particles affected by the weak force have the same physics for right-handed and left-handed particles. Stronger Higgs field interactions make higher-mass particles. Stronger Higgs field interactions are over shorter distances.
The Higgs field interacts with fermions to make a small part of their mass, which is mostly due to gluons and 1% to quarks. Photons, gluons, and gravitons do not interact with Higgs field and have no mass.
Standard Model requires only one Higgs field and one Higgs particle. Standard Model gives correct mass ratio between W and Z bosons and all particle masses. Supersymmetric Standard Models have two Higgs fields and five Higgs particles, three neutral and two charged. Supersymmetric Standard Models have non-zero energy minimum and give mass to superpartners, as Higgs fields interact. Perhaps, neutrino masses come from Higgs-field interactions or from third Higgs field.
Higgs boson
Higgs-field perturbations make bosons {Higgs particle} {Higgs boson} that may be elementary or composite. Higgs bosons are their own antiparticle. Higgs bosons are CP-even.
By Standard Model, smallest mass is 114 to 192 GeV. By measurement [2010], Higgs-boson mass is 115 to 156 GeV or 183 to 185 GeV (200 GeV is same as tau particle and slightly more than charm quark). By measurement [2011], Higgs-boson mass is 115 to 140 GeV. If quantum effects cause smallest Higgs-boson mass to be higher, other-particle masses are too high. By minimal supersymmetry, there are five Higgs bosons at 114 to 192 GeV, 300 GeV (similar to top quark), 370 GeV, and 420 GeV.
Higgs bosons are unstable and quickly decay, and so are not directly observable. If elementary, Higgs bosons can decay to bottom quark and bottom antiquark, photons, and/or tau particle and antitau particle, which are observable.
Higgs bosons have no spin and so are scalar bosons, not vector bosons.
Higgs bosons have no charge and so do not affect electromagnetism, and electromagnetism does not affect them.
Higgs bosons have no color and so do not affect strong force, and strong force does not affect them.
interactions
Particle attraction to Higgs field vibrates Higgs field and makes Higgs field denser at particle, causing (otherwise zero-rest-mass) particle to slow from light speed. Higgs-field interactions with matter cause mass, inertia, and space curvature, because Higgs bosons form as particles acquire mass. Mass is proportional to Higgs-field strength and interaction strength. Different particles have different interactions and different masses. For example, zero-rest-mass photons do not interact with Higgs field and maintain zero mass and light speed.
Higgs field resists accelerations, not velocities.
space
Higgs field is everywhere in space, so particle masses are constant throughout space. Higgs field started at universe origin and fills space-time.
field strength and self-interaction
Standard-Model Higgs particles can interact with themselves, and supersymmetry different Higgs-particle types can interact with other Higgs-particle types. Self-interaction causes negative field strength at lowest energy in universe, so Higgs field at lowest energy is negative energy.
temperature
High temperature makes Higgs field fluctuate. In zero-rest-mass empty space, Higgs field fluctuates above and below zero energy. Above 10^15 K, average energy was zero, and all fermions and bosons had zero mass. Universe was symmetric. At 10^15 K, 10^-11 seconds after universe origin, average Higgs field reached lowest negative value. Some particles acquired mass from Higgs field. Universe was not symmetric (spontaneous symmetry breaking).
In grand unified theory, electromagnetic, weak, and nuclear forces unify before 10^-35 seconds after universe origin, above 10^28 K, under SU(3) x SU(2) x U(1) Lie symmetry group, where SU(3) is for strong-force quark color, SU(2) is for weak-force W and Z bosons, and U(1) is for electromagnetic charge, making grand unified Higgs field. Grand unified theory allows proton decay.
Above 10^15 K, electroweak symmetry is unbroken, and W and Z particles have zero rest mass. Above 10^15 K, electromagnetic and weak forces unify under SU(2) x U(1) Lie symmetry group, making electroweak Higgs field. SU(2) is for the Higgs-field spinor with two complex components: SU(2) doublet. The Standard Model U(1) charge is -1.
At cooler temperature, electromagnetism and weak force do not unify. The W and Z gauge bosons have mass after electroweak symmetry breaking below 10^15 K, by interaction with the Higgs field {Higgs mechanism} {Englert-Brout-Higgs-Guralnik-Hagen-Kibble mechanism} [1964] (François Englert and Robert Brout; Peter Higgs, from ideas of Philip Anderson; Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble). The Higgs field, an SU(2) doublet, has four degrees of freedom. Three degrees of freedom make non-physical Goldstone bosons. One degree of freedom makes one Higgs boson, in the Standard Model. The Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model requires a series of Higgs bosons. The Technicolor models or Higgsless models have no Higgs bosons but do have Higgs mechanism.
Electromagnetic-force-exchange particle {photon, particle}| has mass 0, spin 1, and charge 0. Range is infinite. It has light speed. All zero-mass particles have spin axis in motion direction or in opposite direction.
W particle and Z particle [1973] {intermediate vector boson}| {weak gauge boson} have speed 1000 meters per second and range 10^-18 meters.
Weak-nuclear-force exchange bosons {W particle}| can have mass 80.4 GeV, spin 1, and charge +1 or -1 [found in 1973].
Weak-nuclear-force exchange bosons {Z particle}| can have mass 91 GeV, spin 1, and charge 0 [found in 1973].
Possible exchange bosons {Z-prime particle}| can indicate a new force type.
Hadron bosons include exchange particles {meson}| for nuclear force.
properties
Mesons have masses between one-seventh proton mass and four times proton mass. Mesons have charge -1, 0, or +1. Mesons have spin 0 or 1. Mesons have lifetime from 10^-23 to 10^-8 seconds.
examples
More than 20 mesons include pi meson (pion), K meson (kaon), and eta meson. Rho meson, phi meson, and omega meson are vector mesons with negative intrinsic parity.
quarks
Mesons have quark and antiquark. Pion has up or down quark. Kaon has strange quark. Upsilon particle meson has top quark.
Psi particle or J particle meson {charmonium} has charmed quark.
Mesons {pion}| can have masses one-seventh proton mass. Pion has up quark and down antiquark, so charge is -2/3 + -1/3 = -1, and color and complementary color add to white.
charm quark-antiquark pairs {psi particle}.
5-Physics-Matter-Particle-Subatomic
Outline of Knowledge Database Home Page
Description of Outline of Knowledge Database
Date Modified: 2022.0225