He lived 1642 to 1727 and developed gravity and force laws [1687]. He stated three motion laws and universal-gravitation law.
He invented a light-particle theory and used prisms to separate sunlight into different-color rays. Colors bend by different amounts, but rays cannot further separate or bend [1666].
He invented dy/dx differentiation, infinitesimal calculus, prime-ratio method, ultimate-ratio method, infinite series, fundamental theorem of calculus, differentiation, limits, and limit theorem. He studied polar and bipolar coordinates and invariance under transformation. He invented Newton's parallelogram, Newton's root-finding method, and physical "action".
For one dimension, shear stress F equals shear viscosity µ times derivative of horizontal velocity v with orthogonal coordinate y {linear constitutive relation}: F = µ * dv / dy. This law relates stress to strain rate and usually has three dimensions. This relation leads to the later Navier-Stokes equations.
Epistemology
Spinning discs with varying-area colored segments can make new colors. Average star mass provides absolute reference for accelerated motion, including rotational motion. Water in spinning buckets is concave, because it rotates with respect to universe and not with respect to bucket {bucket argument, Newton}.
"Hypotheses non fingo" or "I feign no hypotheses (about the causes of gravity)" is a phrase in the General Scholium essay of the Principia, 2nd edition [1713].
He lived 1831 to 1879, developed feedback-regulation mathematical formulas, and invented electromagnetism and electromagnetic-wave laws [1865], using first-order partial-differential-equation systems. Mixing red, green, and blue primary colors can make all colors [1854].
He lived 1838 to 1916. He studied gas flow, sound speed, optic Doppler effect, shock waves, and perception {Mach band, Mach}. He studied how observers relate to sensations and objects and studied reference frames.
Epistemology
Accelerations and rotations are relative to universe mean mass {Mach's principle, Mach}, and so relative to fixed stars.
Object and physical knowledge cannot depend on sensations, because methods by which people perceive determine sensations. Science terms describe and predict {instrumentalism} but do not refer to physical objects, which people cannot know.
Only sensory experience can verify science ideas {empirio-criticism}.
He lived 1844 to 1894 and tried to measure electric wavelength. He said that matter moving near light speed contracts in motion direction {Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction} [1892].
He lived 1853 to 1928. He studied Zeeman effect [1892]. He said that matter moving near light speed contracts in motion direction {Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction, Lorentz} [1892]. He invented motion equations {Lorentz equations of motion} for charged particles in electromagnetic fields [1895], whereas Maxwell's equations are for electromagnetic-field changes. He invented Einstein-Lorentz transformations [1904].
He lived 1852 to 1931 and proved light speed is constant [1895].
He lived 1877 to 1946. He calculated black-body-radiation distribution at low and high frequencies {Rayleigh-Jeans radiation, Jeans} {Rayleigh-Jeans law}, with Rayleigh [1900]. All energy seemed to go into higher field frequencies over time, which is impossible {ultraviolet catastrophe, Jeans}: energy density = 8 * pi * k * T / (lambda^4), where T = temperature, k = Boltzmann constant, and lambda = wavelength.
Large-enough {Jeans mass} {Jeans instability} {Jeans length} interstellar clouds can collapse to form stars, depending on temperature, mass, and density.
Two things that can interact share a feature. For example, things that interact gravitationally both have mass. Perhaps, thoughts about perceptions relate to stimulus energies.
He lived 1879 to 1955, discovered photoelectric effect [1905], invented special relativity [1905], and analyzed Brownian motion [1905]. He developed general theory of relativity [1915]. He predicted Bose-Einstein condensation [1924]. He stated Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) ideas [1935]. Crystal vibrations and rotations cause high heat capacity.
He lived 1864 to 1909 and unified space and time {space-time, Minkowski} in four dimensions [1908]. Light travels at 45-degree angle to make a light-cone, inside which events can affect future events and past events can affect point. Distances between events involve positive time and negative distances: s^2 = t^2 - x^2 - y^2 - z^2.
He lived 1872 to 1934, used curved time coordinate (in which distant clocks can run slower or faster), and demonstrated how general relativity required expanding universe [1917]. With curved time coordinate, symmetrical space with no matter or energy can have constant positive curvature (attraction) {de-Sitter space} {de-Sitter space-time}, with no expansion or contraction. (After universe origin, universe probably was like de-Sitter space.)
With curved time coordinate, symmetrical space with no matter or energy can have constant negative curvature (repulsion) {anti-de-Sitter space} {anti-de-Sitter space-time}, with no expansion or contraction. In anti-de-Sitter space, object motions are harmonic. Space boundary is constant at infinity, but space radius depends on curvature and is finite.
He lived 1888 to 1925 and mathematically demonstrated that general relativity required expanding universe [1918]. He imagined universes {Friedmann space-time} that had uniform matter and energy, expanded forever, were infinite, and had no boundary [1922]. Howard Robertson and Arthur G. Walker [1936] elaborated {Friedmann-Robertson-Walker space-time} {FRW universe}, because universe is like FRW universe.
He lived 1882 to 1944 and led expedition to test Einstein's general-relativity theory [1919].
He lived 1885 to 1954. If space has some tiny, curled-up spatial dimensions, besides the three long spatial dimensions, general relativity and electromagnetism can unify [1919].
He lived 1882 to 1970 and studied time measurement, ion formation, and crystal energy. He contributed to matrix mechanics as quantum mechanics explanation and to electron probability waves [1925]. He developed the Born-Oppenheimer relation between molecular rotation, vibration, and electronic structure [1926].
He lived 1894 to 1977 and invented Kaluza-Klein theory [1926].
He lived 1896 to 1950 and developed kinematic relativity theory [1932].
He lived 1911 to ?, studied S-matrix theory [1937], and invented Wheeler-Feynman absorption theory [1949]. Perhaps, universe {participatory universe} stayed in superposed quantum states until consciousness arose and determined states that led to consciousness.
He lived 1912 to and invented a star-evolution theory [1938].
He lived 1916 to 1997, found background microwave radiation, and studied gravitational theory [1964].
Bell lived 1943 to ?. Hewish lived 1924 to ?. They discovered neutron-star pulsars, which look to Earth observers like microwave-beam lighthouses, spinning dozens of times each second [1967].
He lived 1936 to ? and used renormalization group theory to remove infinities from masses and distances in phase transitions and to preserve fractal dimension [1969 to 1974].
He lived 1927 to 1992.
He found the Bekenstein-Hawking formula [1971] for black hole entropy, which shows that entropy depends on surface area and so mass squared.
Thorne lived 1941 to ?. Misner lived 1932 to ?. Wheeler lived 1911 to ?.
They invented supersymmetric quantum field theory [1973].
Glashow lived 1932 to ?. They invented grand unification of strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces [1974], with Steven Weinberg and Helen Quinn.
They invented string theory including gravity and strong force [1974].
They measured binary-pulsar rotation period, which increased by gravity radiation exactly as predicted by general relativity [1974].
He studied relativity.
He lived 1933 to ? and studied universe origin. He worked with Abdus Salam on electroweak theory. Why does our universe have the cosmological constant that allows life to form {coincidence problem}. Perhaps, there are many universes, and some have that cosmological constant.
In universes with general relativity, antigravity starting 10^-34 second after universe origin can cause exponential inflation [1979]. Universe goes from smaller than proton to softball size.
He lived 1917 to 2003. Dissipative-structure subsystems can reduce entropy, if energy is available and subsystems use only their own processes.
They invented first string theory describing all four forces and matter, with supersymmetry, bosons, and fermions [1984]. Previously, bosonic string theory had no supersymmetry or fermions.
He lived 1939 to 1988 and studied complexity.
He lived 1942 to ? and studied singularities and black holes. He predicted that black holes can radiate random thermal radiation and so have temperature [1974]. Black-hole surfaces create virtual-particle pairs, and one particle can leave black hole, resulting in mass loss and thermal radiation (Hawking radiation).
He lived 1946 to ? and studied the holographic principle [1993] and how it applies to black holes.
He lived 1951 to ? and used duality to solve string theory problems [1995]. In one string-theory version, strong coupling is equivalent to weak coupling, for calculation.
He studied time.
He studied quantum loop theory.
Universe expansion is accelerating [1998].
He thought that wave/particle duality is contradiction but is still true [1999].
He studied string theory.
He studied dark energy.
Outline of Knowledge Database Home Page
Description of Outline of Knowledge Database
Date Modified: 2022.0225