Apes {ape, animal} came from Old World monkeys.
cognition: causation
Apes understand that acting on one object can cause connected-object motion.
cognition: deception
Apes practice deception by distracting attention, so they can steal food or mates [Byrne and Whiten, 1988] [Whiten and Byrne, 1997].
cognition: laughing
Only humans laugh, but young chimpanzees puff air when they play, similar to laughing. Apes can also appear happy. Chimpanzees smile when submitting, but not from happiness. Perhaps, laughter is for alliance making.
cognition: mirror
Some apes can touch body spots they see in mirrors. Some apes seem to recognize themselves in mirrors after a while. Chimpanzees, orangutans, bonobos, and humans over two years old can use their reflections in mirrors to perceive body and direct actions. They can recognize themselves and have sense of self. Gorillas, monkeys, and children less than two years old do not [Gallup, 1970] [Gallup, 1998]. Chimps, bonobos, and orangutans can recognize themselves in mirrors immediately or after several-days experience, but gorillas, baboons, and most other primates cannot [Napier, 1976] [Napier, 1977].
cognition: play
Apes like to play.
cognition: self
Chimpanzees have no sense of self and no consciousness of mental states, though they can inspect their bodies using mirrors [Heyes and Galef, 1996] [Heyes, 1998].
cognition: suffering
Apes can suffer, because they can do something about conditions that make them suffer.
biology: parental care
Apes have parental care over long childhoods.
biology: palm walking
Apes used palm walking, not knuckle walking as in monkeys.
biology: reflex
Adult apes have Babiniski reflex, to grasp tree branches with toes.
biology: one sense pathway
In apes, object perception uses one sense pathway involving all senses, as humans do at birth.
biology: pheromone and sex
Sex-hormone-derived pheromones are in skin secretions [Savic et al., 2001] [Savic, 2002] [Sobel et al., 1999].
biology: pheromone receptivity
Baboons secrete female pheromones during receptivity. Community living can synchronize ovulation through olfactory signal. Small pheromone amounts work [Gangestad et al., 2002] [McClintock, 1998] [Schank, 2001] [Stern and McClintock, 1998] [Weller et al., 1999] [Pantages and Dulac, 2000].
biology: serotonin reuptake
Anthropoid apes have different promoter sequence for serotonin reuptake transport gene than humans do.
biology: evolution
Proconsul was lesser ape and was hominid ancestor. It was ape-like in shoulder, elbow, cranium, and teeth dentition. It was monkey-like in long trunk, backbone, pelvis, arm, and hand. At least four species weighed from 10 to 80 kilograms.
communication: sign language
After four years of training, the chimpanzee Washoe acquired over 100 American Sign Language signs. It heard no other language. Some signs were for general classes, rather than just objects and events. Some signs changed or extended. Washoe used sign order. Washoe substituted signs with similar meanings or shapes.
However, no primates develop signing themselves. Humans have to teach them. Humans cue chimpanzees to make signs, and chimpanzees sign to get rewards. Chimpanzees sign to each other socially but not for rewards [Gardner and Gardner, 1969].
communication: signals
Chimpanzees and gorillas cannot learn to use expressions with interruptions. Animal communications always repeat. Behavior, display, or signal redundancy and ritualization increase communication efficiency. Animals often use opposite signals, such as high and low, or loud and soft, for opposite intentions or behavior. Animals can modify signals in different contexts, but they do not rearrange symbol order deliberately nor assign meaning to signal order.
communication: symbol
Apes have 150 to 200 non-linguistic symbols, such as facial expressions, danger and location calls, courtship rituals and displays, grooming, group or family signals, and personal communication between individuals. Humans have 150 to 200 non-linguistic symbols.
communication: word
The bonobo Kanzi used and understood 150 words, typically to express desires or refer to present objects. Learning was instrumental association, with no grammar. Perhaps, it was not referential [Savage-Rumbaugh, 1986].
society
Ape societies have 10 to 100 animals.
Human ancestors {missing link}| can fill fossil gap between apes and humans.
Male orangutans have cheek pads {flanges}.
Australopithecus were not always robust {gracile}|.
Dryopithecus had face that tilted down {klinorhynchy, face}. Orangutans, gibbons, and siamangs have airorhynchy.
Orangutans, gibbons, and siamangs have faces that tilt up {airorhynchy, face}. Dryopithecus had klinorhynchy.
Lesser apes {ape, lesser} {lesser ape} {pongid}| {hylobatid} (Hylobates) separated from Old World monkeys [-22000000]. Proconsul in Kenya, Afropithecus in Kenya, Kenyapithecus in Kenya, and Morotopithecus in Uganda lived in early Miocene. Early lesser apes were like siamang and gibbon, except they walked on all fours on branch tops. Apes have broad chests and large brains. They weigh from 3 to 80 kilograms.
development
Apes grow more slowly than monkeys.
reproduction
Apes reproduced less than monkeys.
skeleton
Apes have more flexible hips, shoulders, wrists, ankles, hands, and feet than monkeys.
digestion
Some apes eat leaves. Some apes eat fruit and nuts.
tailless
Having no tail allows sitting, more sexual intercourse positions, and new spinal shapes.
posture
Apes have semi-erect posture. Apes can hold arms above heads and so hang, using opposing thumbs.
face
Apes have movable upper lips, allowing facial expressions.
ape, small, arboreal, muzzle, southeast Asia and East Indies, long arms {gibbon} (Hylobates).
ape, large, black, terrestrial, bare colored buttocks, Africa and Asia {baboon} (Papio) (Cercopithecidae).
west Africa baboon {mandrill}.
Apes {great ape} evolved.
skeleton
Great apes have shoulder blades on back, while lesser apes have shoulder blades on sides. Great apes have shallow ribcages, while lesser apes have deep ribcages. Great apes have flexible hips, while lesser apes have restricted movement.
skeleton: spine
Great apes have short stiff S-shaped spines with two curves, rather than straight or single-curve spines, for more upright posture. S-shaped spine is more flexible, allows running, and aids balance. Great-ape vertebrae projections point out back, while lesser-ape vertebrae projections point to side.
arm
Great apes have big hands, while lesser apes have small hands. Great apes can make rapid arm movements similar to hammering, clubbing, and throwing. Great apes can extend elbow joint fully, while lesser apes cannot make arm straight. Great apes have arms longer than legs, while lesser apes have equal lengths.
tools
Great apes make and use tools.
hunting
Great apes hunt, but not with tools.
society
Great apes live in societies, which increase opportunities for learning, experience, and knowledge.
senses
Great apes do not correlate senses.
evolution
Apes and great apes split 15 million years ago. Great apes evolved from Proconsul-like lesser apes.
Pongo pygmaeus {orangutan} are great apes, are solitary, have no tail, live in trees in nest, and are in Borneo and Sumatra rain forests. They are safe in treetops. They can live for 60 years.
sex
Males become mature at 12 to 14 years, are twice as big as females, have flanges, have throat sac for yelling {long call}, and have long orange hair. Puberty is at age 7 to 9. If group has dominant male, young males can stay pubescent.
tools
In swamp forests of Sumatra and Borneo, where food is abundant, they can learn to use tools at 7 years old.
Anthropoid apes {anthropoid ape} (hominids), such as gorillas and chimpanzees, differentiated from apes in hands, feet, arms, and legs.
types
Propliopithecus was first anthropoid ape and direct ancestor of all hominids.
hand
Anthropoid apes have grasping hands.
walking
Anthropoid apes walk upright, requiring mechanisms for balance, allowing farther and greater lateral vision, and requiring learned gait. Anthropoid apes have wider territory and shared or secured territory.
habitat
Gorillas live on ground, and others live in trees.
communication
Anthropoid apes communicate, using dozens of meaningful sounds, about objects but do not have mental states.
vision
Color vision can see ripe fruits in forest and recognize faces.
brain
Delay system in frontal lobe between senses and motor nerves possibly allows decision-making. Anthropoid apes are curious, reason, have emotions, have social instincts, and imitate. Great apes have neurons in anterior cingulate that have apical dendrite and dendrite near axon and look like spindles.
largest anthropoid ape, black, terrestrial, vegetarian, equatorial West Africa {gorilla} (Gorilla gorilla).
Genus Pan apes {Pan, ape} split from gorillas and was like chimpanzee, pygmy chimpanzee, or bonobo. Pan apes weigh 30 to 60 kilograms. They eat fruit and have large canine teeth with thin enamel. They have long arms and legs. They are arboreal. They are knuckle walkers on all fours. They are sexually dimorphic and have polygynous social structure. They are hairy.
pygmy chimpanzee {bonobo}|.
Chimpanzees {chimpanzee} are great apes. Chimpanzees can communicate using complex sign or symbol systems and have more than 30 meaningful vocalizations. Chimpanzees can cooperate. Chimpanzees can deceive others. Chimpanzees have concept of self. Chimpanzees use and make tools. Given puzzles, they manipulate pieces, even without reward.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225