Drugs {drug} {pharmaceutical, drug} include anesthetics, antibiotics, depressants, hallucinogens, muscle relaxers, stimulants, and tranquilizers [Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968] [Atkinson et al., 1999] [Atkinson et al., 2000] [Farthing, 1992] [Hobson, 1999] [Huxley, 1954] [Julien, 2001] [Metzner, 1971] [Metzner, 1999] [Spence and Spence, 1968] [Tart, 1972] [Tart, 1975]. Drugs are for blood, against cancer, for cognition, against fever, for GI tract, for hypnosis, against mental illness, against pain, for skin, and for sleep.
altered state
Drugs can provide atypical arousal, attention, emotions, body image, imagination, memory, meaning, perception, reasoning, self-control, sense of self, suggestibility, talking to oneself, time scale, and values {drugged state} {altered state of consciousness}.
FosB transcription factor
Regular drug use, and other stimuli that give reward, increase nucleus-accumbens transcription factors {FosB transcription factor}, which degrade slowly and cause sensitization.
depression
Drugs can cause or alleviate depression.
hallucination
Drugs can cause or stop hallucinations. Drugs can cause hallucinations that change sense qualities to another of same or different sense. For example, hallucinations can make red seem blue, high voice sound low, sweet seem sour, and pain be pleasurable. Perhaps, imagination and expectation of vivid and mind-altering hallucinations causes such hallucinations.
hypnosis
Drugs can cause hypnosis.
memory
Drugs do not affect short-term memory. If drugs reduce brain electrical activity, brain has no memory consolidation or long-term memory. After memory consolidates, drugs do not affect long-term memory.
mood
Depressants, hallucinogens, hypnotics, pain blockers, sleep inducers, stimulants, and tranquilizers affect mood.
near-death experience
No drugs cause near-death experiences.
out-of-body experience
Drugs that relax body and reduce body image can induce out-of-body experiences.
pain
Drugs can cause or alleviate pain.
sleep
Drugs can cause or stop sleep. REM sleep diminishes with antipsychotics, anxiolytic drugs, and benzodiazepines.
stimulation
Drugs can cause or alleviate stimulation.
tranquilization
Drugs can cause or alleviate tranquilization.
Antidepressant drugs {bupropion} can block smoking desire.
Ammonium carbonate {smelling salt} {ammonium carbonate} can revive people who faint.
Oils {castor oil} can have vitamin E.
Benzosulfamide {saccharin} artificially sweetens [1879].
Peruvian-bark amine {quinine} treats malarial fever.
Vaccines often require second doses {booster shot}.
Drugs {patent medicine} can be ineffective.
drug {physic}.
Drug substitutes {placebo}| can have same look and feel as drugs but have no active chemicals.
patent medicine {snake oil}.
Drugs {tonic, drug} can be liquid chemical mixtures for treating general illness.
Alkaline drugs {alkaloid} include atropine, heroin, mescaline, morphine, reserpine, and scopolamine.
Amines {amine, drug} include amphetamine, antihistamine, codeine, curare, histamine, morphine, nicotine, ninhydrin, novocaine, quinine, strychnine, and sulfa drugs. Multi-cyclic amines include codeine, morphine, quinine, and strychnine.
Minerals {antimetabolite} can kill bacteria.
Antipyretics {antipyretic}|, such as salicylates, reduce fever.
Drugs {antisense drug} can bind to mRNA.
Inorganic chemicals {antiseptic}| can kill bacteria.
Drugs {antiserum} can have antibodies that bind to disease organisms.
Drugs {antitoxin}| can neutralize poisons.
Inorganic chemicals {astringent}| can contract skin tissue.
Vertebrates make small proteins {definsin} that go into cell membrane and make tubes, killing microbes by opening holes.
MDMA, MDA, and MDE methylenedioxyamphetamines {entactogen}| cause serotonin release from presynaptic transporters and increase synapse dopamine. Entactogens stimulate and can cause hallucinations and "peak" experiences.
Guaifenesin and other drugs {expectorant}| can move mucus up from lungs, bronchi, and trachea, by thinning and wetting mucus.
Drugs {fungicide}| can kill fungi, such as athlete's foot.
Drugs {germicide}| can destroy bacteria mechanically.
Drugs {herbicide}| can destroy plants.
Sulfones {sulfone} [1888] and urethane {urethane} [1900] are hypnotics {hypnotic drug}.
Drugs {insecticide}| can kill insects.
Drugs {purgative}| can cause bowel evacuation.
Regular drug use can cause drug craving {addiction} when people do not take drug.
If addicted people do not take addictive drugs, they have painful physical and psychological symptoms {withdrawal symptom}|.
Specific cell-proliferation inhibitors {chalone} can be for immunotherapy.
Affecting chalones {immunotherapy}| can aid immune system.
Chemicals {adjuvant}| can stimulate immune system.
Drugs {drug, kinds} can be anesthetics, antibiotics, depressants, hallucinogens, stimulants, tranquilizers, and cognitive, mental illness, pain, and sleep drugs.
Chemicals {anesthesia}| {anesthetic} can inhibit voluntary-muscle movements {immobility}, inhibit involuntary-muscle movements {muscle relaxation}, lower consciousness to sleep-like level with dreaming {narcosis, anesthesia} {hypnosis, anesthesia}, inhibit pain {analgesia, anesthesia}, cause no memory of episode {amnesia, anesthesia}, and lower brain activity {sedation, anesthesia}.
Anesthesia can be borderline anesthesia {hypesthesia}. Light anesthesia allows consciousness but blocks muscle movements.
Deep anesthesia blocks consciousness and muscle movements.
levels
Anesthesia first affects higher brain functions {anesthetic depth}. The lightest anesthesia causes analgesia, memory loss, and euphoria. Deeper anesthesia causes consciousness loss, rapid shallow breathing, sweating, and flushing. Complete anesthesia causes quiet, regular breathing, with eyeballs moving rhythmically. It does not affect reflexes. In deep anesthesia, first reflexes fail, then breathing becomes shallow, and finally people die.
levels: measurement
Inhaled anesthetics have alveoli concentrations {minimum alveolar concentration} (MAC) that block movements in response to stimuli in 50% of patients. Inhaled anesthetics have lower alveoli concentrations {minimum alveolar concentration-aware} {MAC-aware} that block stimulus awareness in 50% of patients. Intravenous anesthetics have blood-plasma concentrations {end-tidal concentration} that block movements in response to stimuli in 50% of patients.
Blood pressure, heart rate, sweating, and tear secretion combined {PRST score} indicate awareness level.
EEG power spectrum shows waves at 3 Hz below alpha-wave frequency. Stimuli cause EEG evoked potentials that appear at various times after event. Anesthesia reduces or delays evoked potentials. In anesthesia, three auditory evoked potentials typically happen 20 ms to 45 ms after stimulus {AEP index}.
local anesthesia
Local anesthesia makes body parts feel non-existent, rather than senseless or paralyzed. Local anesthesia inhibits touch and pain perception with lidocaine and similar chemicals, by injection into local nerves {nerve block}, spinal-cord epidural region {epidural anesthesia}, or subarachnoid spaces {spinal anesthesia}.
Local anesthesia does not cause amnesia and maintains consciousness. Local anesthesia can combine with benzodiazepine sedation {conscious sedation}, which causes amnesia but maintains consciousness.
biology
Anesthetics typically affect cell-membrane proteins. Anesthetics stimulate vagus nerve, which detects lung expansion.
biology: brain
Anesthesia can have prolonged brain-potential synchronization. Anesthetics seem to work on whole brain, not isolated circuits or regions [Alkire et al., 1998].
biology: drugs
Barbiturates, high-pressure nitrogen, alcohols, cleaning fluids like trichloroethene, industrial solvents, steroids, ether, chloroform, xenon, nitrous oxide, phencyclidine, opioids, and cholinergic agents can cause reversible consciousness loss.
Different drugs separately affect memory, voluntary muscles, and perception. Alfentanil, chloroform, cocaine, enflurane, ethyl p-aminobenzoate [1890], etomidate, halothane, isoflurane, ketamine, nitrous oxide, procaine, and propofol are anesthetics. Ethyl p-aminobenzoate [1890] is a local anesthetic.
Different anesthetics can have cross-tolerance.
biology: EEG
Bispectral index can measure anesthesia depth.
biology: endorphins
Perhaps, anesthetics affect enkephalin or endorphin chemistry.
biology: hippocampus
Perhaps, decreased hippocampus activity causes amnesia.
biology: receptors
Perhaps, anesthetics bind to NMDA or GABA-A receptor. Some anesthetics bind to microtubules. Anesthetics inhibit signal transfer between neurons [Alkire et al., 1997] [Alkire et al., 1999] [Antkowiak, 2001] [Franks and Lieb, 1994] [Franks and Lieb, 1998] [Kulli and Koch, 1991] [Lamme et al., 1998] [Logothetis et al., 1999] [Logothetis et al., 2001] [Rosen and Lunn, 1987] [Sennholz, 2000] [Tamura and Tanaka, 2001].
procedure
Before operations, patients have sedative, intravenous benzodiazepine, and oxygen.
Next comes intravenous thiopental or propofol, whose effects wear off quickly, followed by intravenous muscle relaxant {rapid sequence induction}, for quick anesthesia. Alternatively, next comes inhaled nitrous oxide and oxygen then inhaled halothane, desflurane, or sevoflurane {inhalation induction} {mask induction}, for slow anesthesia. Alternatively, next comes intravenous sufentanyl or propofol {intravenous anesthesia}.
After surgery, neostygmine allows muscle movement, and morphine inhibits pain.
High air pressures aid recovery from anesthesia.
results: amnesia
Anesthesia can cause no memory of surgery.
results: immobility
Anesthesia can cause no reaction to stimuli and no voluntary-muscle movement. Immobility can result from inhibition at spinal-cord GABA receptors.
results: memory
After anesthesia at level that precludes consciousness, patients can remember things that happened in surgery. Intense stimuli can cause memory without consciousness [Kihlstrom, 1996] [Levinson, 1965] [Merikle and Daneman, 1996].
Lipid solubility determines anesthetic effect {Myer-Overton rule}. Solubility allows binding to membrane proteins.
Muscle relaxers act quickly, so if tourniquets stop blood flow to arms, arms later have no paralysis {isolated forearm technique}.
Intravenous hypnotic drugs, such as propofol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines, increase inhibition by keeping chloride channels open, because they enhance receptor inhibitory neurotransmitter effects {gamma-aminobutyric acid, drugs} (GABA) [Franks and Lieb, 2000]. Humans have more than 15 GABA-receptor types, which have different binding constants and connect to different pathways.
Drugs {etomidate} can enhance GABA-A receptors [Franks and Lieb, 2000].
Intravenous drugs {propofol} can affect GABA reception and correlate with low blood flow to midbrain and thalamus.
Intravenous barbiturates and sedatives {thiopental} {sodium pentothal} can affect GABA receptors [1930 to 1940].
Inhaled CH3Cl [3 is subscript] anesthetic {chloroform} is toxic.
Inhaled anesthetic {enflurane} can replace chloroform and ether. It affects nitric-oxide synthesis.
William Morton [? to 1868] used inhaled gas {ether} [1846] for surgery October 16 {Ether Day}. Ether is too volatile.
Inhaled anesthetic {halothane} can replace chloroform and ether. It affects nitric-oxide synthesis.
Inhaled anesthetic {isoflurane} can replace chloroform and ether. It affects nitric-oxide synthesis.
Humphrey Davy noted [1800] inhaled anesthetic {nitrous oxide} {laughing gas}. Horace Wells used it in dentistry [1844]. Nitrous oxide prevents glutamine binding at NMDA-receptor complexes [Flohr, 2000]. It reduces felt time.
Amines {curare} can block acetylcholine transmission across synapses and inhibit involuntary and reflex motions [1940 to 1950].
Curare substitutes {succinyl choline} can block acetylcholine transmission across synapses and inhibit involuntary and reflex motions.
Curare substitutes {tubocurarine} can block acetylcholine transmission across synapses and inhibit involuntary and reflex motions.
Curare substitutes {vecuronium} can block acetylcholine transmission across synapses and inhibit involuntary and reflex motions.
Ap5, CPP, CGS 19755, and D-CPP-ene {NMDA antagonist} compete for NMDA receptor but have no metabolic effect themselves.
Anesthetics {ketamine} can prevent glutamine binding at NMDA receptor complexes. Ketamine can cause hallucinations and dissociation. Ketamine does not affect GABA-A receptors [Franks and Lieb, 2000] [Flohr, 2000] [Flohr et al., 1998] [Hardcastle, 2000].
Drugs {antibiotic}| can treat infections by killing infectious microorganisms. Penicillin and other beta-lactams inhibit cell-wall protein synthesis. Erythromycin and tetracycline antibiotics inhibit bacterial ribosomes, preventing protein production. Streptomycin and other aminoglycosides bind to rRNA. Quinolones inhibit enzymes used to replicate DNA. Sulfonamides inhibit DNA synthesis. Ciprofloxacin and rifampicin {fluoroquinolone} bind to gyrase enzyme and prevent DNA replication.
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) makes enzyme that splits antibiotic {antibiotic resistance}. Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) has five-gene cassette that alters cell-wall receptor. Bacteria can make cell-membrane systems that pump out antibiotics.
As part of SOS response, bacterial cells can attach RecA protein to single-stranded DNA, which splits LexA regulatory protein, which derepresses genes that cause DNA mutations, which alter drug targets. Binding compound to LexA first, to prevent splitting by RecA, can prevent mutation resistance.
Actinomycetes can make antifungals {mycangimycin}.
Myxobacteria Stigmatella aurantiaca can make antibiotic molecules {myxochromide}.
Verrucosispora actinomycetes can make antibiotics {abyssomicin}.
Streptomycin {aminoglycoside} can inhibit enzyme synthesis.
Drugs {bacterin} can destroy bacteria.
Penicillin, methicillin, and penicillin-derivatives {beta-lactam} can inhibit cell-wall protein synthesis [1940].
Imipenem {carbapenem} can inhibit cell-wall protein synthesis.
Ceftibuten {cephalosporin} can inhibit cell-wall protein synthesis.
Drugs {chloramphenicol} can be early antibiotics [1949].
Ciprofloxacin {fluoroquinoline} can inhibit enzymes. Ciprofloxacin treats anthrax.
Vancomycin {glycopeptide} can inhibit cell-wall protein synthesis [1958].
Drugs {hexachlorophene} can destroy bacteria mechanically.
Drugs {lipopeptide} can be in membranes [2003].
Erythromycin {macrolide} can inhibit enzyme synthesis [1952].
Retapamulin {mutilin} can inhibit enzyme synthesis [2007].
Linezolid {oxazolidinone} can inhibit enzyme synthesis [2000].
Ciprofloxacin {quinolone} can inhibit DNA unwinding [1962].
Drugs {streptogramin} can kill streptococci [1962].
Drugs {sulfa drug} can be amines with sulfur [1938].
Sulfamethoxazole {sulfonamide} can inhibit nucleic-acid precursor synthesis.
Minocycline {tetracycline} can inhibit enzyme synthesis [1949] and microglial activation. Minocycline can cross brain-blood barrier but does not affect astroglia or neurons.
Drugs {triclocarban} can be similar to triclosan.
Drugs {triclosan} can be similar to triclocarban.
Drugs {trimethoprim} can inhibit nucleic-acid precursor synthesis.
Drugs {antiviral drug} can inhibit M2, used by viruses to detach or attach. Drugs {amantadine} can treat Asian flu. Antiviral drugs (CS-8958) {peramvir} {oselamivir} {zanamivir} can inhibit neuramidase, used by viruses to detach from cells and enter other cells. Antiviral drugs {fludase} can inhibit viral attachment to cell sialic-acid receptors. Antiviral drugs (G00101) can stimulate RNA interference with viral information. Antiviral drugs {neugene} can use antisense DNA to bind to viral-DNA regions.
Drugs {idoxuridine} can treat eye herpes.
Drugs {inosiplex} can be for colds, flu, and herpes viruses.
Drugs {levamisole} can treat herpes.
Drugs {ribavarin} {Virazole} can be for flu, infectious hepatitis, and herpes viruses.
Oral vaccines {Sabin vaccine} can work against polio.
Injected vaccines {Salk vaccine} can work against polio.
Drugs {psychoactive drug} can affect mental function [Weil, 1998].
Drugs {empathogen} can cause love feelings.
Drugs {modafinil} can improve attention.
Clonidine {alpha-receptor agonist} improves cognitive performance.
Yohimbine {alpha-receptor antagonist} prevents cognitive improvement.
Drugs {puromycin} can block protein synthesis and prevent memory consolidation.
Strychnos amine {strychnine} can reduce glycine binding but not affect glycine receptors. In very low doses, strychnine improves short-term memory and transfer to long-term memory. It is rat poison and can cause convulsions by sensitizing synapses.
Drugs {volado} can affect mushroom bodies, which learn to avoid smells associated with shocks.
Acetylcholine {acetylcholine, receptor} can bind to nicotinic receptors and to receptors {muscarinic receptor} that bind muscarine. Nicotine and muscarine are cholinergic agonists.
Donepezil, galantamine, phenserine, and rivastigmine {acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting drug} {ACh-inhibiting} inhibit acetylcholinesterase, prolonging acetylcholine activity, as in Alzheimer's patients.
Physostigmine {cholinergic agonist} competes for acetylcholine receptor and can improve memory. Pilocarpine cholinergic agonist is for Sjogren's syndrome.
Atropine and Cogentin {cholinergic antagonist} {anticholinergic drug} bind to nicotinic and muscarinic receptors and prevent acetylcholine binding.
Alkaloid cholinergic antagonist {scopolamine}, related to Solanaceae family, depresses memory ability and causes amnesia.
Drugs {anti-cholinesterase} can block cholinesterase and so aid memory.
Thorn-apple drugs {hyoscine, drug} can bind to acetylcholine receptors and affect long-term memory recall.
Drugs {depressant}| can reduce nervous-system activity and increase learning extinction. Depressants cause relaxed feeling, inhibition loss, inebriation, sleep, and feeling that time is slower. Depressants include alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, catecholamine affectors, and Solanaceae drugs.
Ethyl-alcohol depressant {alcohol, drug} can cause physical and psychological dependence. Alcohol dehydrogenases break down alcohol, but many Australian and North American natives cannot increase dehydrogenases. Alcohol binds to GABA receptor different from barbiturate receptor and keeps channel open longer.
Intravenous sedatives and depressants [1930 to 1940] {barbiturate}| bind to gamma-aminobutyric-acid (GABA) receptors and keep chloride channels open longer. Barbiturates can cause physical and psychological dependence. Barbiturates are for insomnia. They include barbital (Veronal), phenobarbital (Luminal), and thiopental (Pentothal) or sodium amytal.
Drugs {benzodiazepine} {sleeping pill} can be sedatives and depressants [1930 to 1940]. Benzodiazepines include Valium, Mogadon, diazepam, Dalmane, and midazolam.
biology
Benzodiazepines link to GABA receptors to increase gamma-aminobutyric-acid (GABA) affinity for GABA neuroreceptors and enhance GABA-mediated synaptic potentials. Benzodiazepines can induce sleep by blocking reticular-activating-system activation.
dependence
Benzodiazepines are generally safe and effective, but prolonged use leads to dependence. Withdrawal causes anxiety, nightmares, and poor sleep for one week.
effects
Most mildly neurotic patients receive benzodiazepine tranquilizers. They reduce anxiety for several weeks but diminish in effectiveness over months. People often misuse them.
Drugs {imidazopyridine} can be like benzodiazepines but act on GABA-receptor parts.
Drugs {monoamine depressant} can deplete brain-messenger monoamines and induce depression. Drugs can raise monoamine level and relieve depression, but cause mania.
Drugs {catecholamine agonist} can compete for catecholamine receptor.
Drugs {catecholamine antagonist} can compete for catecholamine receptor but have no metabolic effect.
Drugs {bretylium} can block catecholamine release. They have highly basic centers linked by one-carbon or two-carbon chains to rings.
Drugs {desipramine} can inhibit catecholamine uptake.
Drugs {guanethidine} can block catecholamine release. They have highly basic centers linked by one-carbon or two-carbon chains to rings.
A drug family {Solanaceae} includes nightshade or belladonna, mandrake, jimson weed, henbane, scopolamine, and sodium amytal {truth serum}.
Hemlock has alkaloid {coniine}.
Solanaceae datura {jimson weed} has tropane alkaloids like atropine.
Solanaceae-family drugs {mandrake root} can contain scopolamine and atropine.
Drugs {hallucinogen}| can cause delirium and unreal sense experiences. In small doses, they cause euphoria and hyperactivity. Hallucinogens are toxic, can cause fever, antagonize serotonin, arouse sympathetic nervous system, and are non-addictive. Dimethoxytryptamine, LSD, marijuana, mescaline, peyote, and psilocybin are hallucinogens [Earleywine, 2002] [Grinspoon and Bakalar, 1993].
Norse legends describe mushroom-derived drugs {amanita muscaria} {fly agaric}.
Atropa-belladonna alkaloid {atropine} dilates pupils, is poisonous, and causes flying illusions.
Atropa-belladonna drugs {belladonna} can cause flying sense qualities, but are poisons.
Harmine, tetrahydroharmine, and harmaline {beta-carboline} can inhibit monoamine oxidase, which breaks down DMT.
Drugs {cannabis} {delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol} (THC) (delta-9-THC) {cannabinoids} can prolong time.
human
Body makes anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol cannabinoids, which bind to hippocampus cannabinoid receptors and affect memory. Cannabinoids increase dopamine release.
types
Oleamide is hypnotic. Hallucinogens {marijuana} {hashish} can be in China [-2737], Iran {beng}, Morocco {kif}, South America {dagga}, and India {bhang} {gangha} {charas}. Marijuana distorts time and causes objective feelings about self, light feelings, clear-perception feelings, and then lapses into sleep. Marijuana is non-addictive. Marijuana comes from hemp-species resin [Earleywine, 2002] [Grinspoon and Bakalar, 1993].
Cough suppressants {dextromethorphan} can bind to NMDA receptors to prevent NMDA binding. High concentrations can cause hallucinations.
Drugs {N,N-dimethyltryptamine} {dimethoxytryptamine} (DMT) {tryptamine} can make world seem to shrink or expand. DMT is main drug in ayahuasca. DMT makes 5-HT-serotonin system excited, especially at cerebrum-layer-5 presynaptic 5-HT2A receptors. DMT can cause religious ecstasy.
Morphine acetylation makes alkaloid opiate {heroin}.
Drugs {lysergic acid diethylamide} (LSD) can excite 5-HT-serotonin system, especially at cerebrum-layer-5 presynaptic 5-HT2A receptors. LSD can cause cosmic consciousness. People on LSD feel out of time and space and so unified with nature. They can feel holy or insightful or have good moods [DeBold and Leaf, 1967] [Doblin, 1991] [Masters and Houston, 1967] [Pahnke, 1963] [Pahnke, 1967] [Pahnke, 1971].
3-methylene-dioxy-methamphetamines {methamphetamine} (meth) (MDMA) {ecstasy, drug} are amphetamines and hallucinogens. MDMA can damage serotonin neurons. MDMA is analeptic and causes age regression. It can cause love feelings. It is addictive.
Peyote mescal-button alkaloids {mescaline} can be stimulants and cause feeling heightened experience. Mescaline phenylethylamine excites the 5-HT-serotonin system, especially at cerebrum-layer-5 presynaptic 5-HT2A receptors.
Drugs {MK-801} can bind to NMDA receptors and prevent NMDA binding.
Peyote plants make chemical mixtures {peyote} milder than mescaline.
Teonanacatl drugs {psilocybin} can give mystical experiences. People on psilocybin feel out of time and space, and so unified with nature, and can feel holy and insightful or have good moods [Doblin, 1991] [Earleywine, 2002] [Grinspoon and Bakalar, 1993] [Masters and Houston, 1967] [Pahnke, 1963] [Pahnke, 1967] [Pahnke, 1971].
Salvia-divinorum mint diterpene {salvinorin A} binds to kappa-opioid receptors and causes hallucinations in Mazatek ceremonies in Mexico.
Sacred Aztec mushrooms {teonanacatl} are from Mexico [-1000].
Phenothiazine (Thorazine) schizophrenia drugs {antipsychotic}| act on nucleus accumbens to fill dopamine-D2 receptors. Clozapine (Clorazil), olanzapine (Zyprexa), and risperidone (Risperdal) are not phenothiazines but bind to dopamine-D2-receptor active sites.
Anxiety-reducing neuromodulators {anxiolytic drug, anxiety} increase affinity of GABA for GABA neuroreceptors and enhance GABA-mediated synaptic potentials. Benzodiazepine anti-anxiety drugs affect anxiety-control system. Bony fish and higher animals have anxiety-control systems.
Drugs {lithium carbonate} {lithium drug} can decrease norepinephrine effects and help depression and mania. Lithium is less effective against depression alone.
Drugs {schizophrenia-causing drug} can cause schizophrenia. Drugs {apomorphine} can worsen schizophrenia. Drugs {levodopa} can release brain dopamine and cause paranoid schizophrenia or worsen schizophrenic symptoms.
Drugs {anti-opiate} {opiate antagonist} can compete for opiate receptors but have no metabolic effect. Anti-opiates can stop auditory hallucinations. Naloxone is an opiate antagonist.
Drugs {anticonvulsant}| can be for psychomotor epilepsy. Anticonvulsants include carbamazepine and phenytoin.
Drugs {dilantin} {diphenylhydantoin} can treat epilepsy.
Imipramine {antidepressant drug}| can relieve depression by prolonging time noradrenaline and serotonin stay in synapses, by inhibiting membrane epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin transport back into cells and preventing pre-synaptic neuron re-uptake into vesicles. Iproniazid (Niamid) inhibits monoamine oxidase to prevent noradrenaline and serotonin breakdown.
types
Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors, such as Prozac, affect only serotonin. Selective noradrenaline re-uptake inhibitors, such as Strattera, affect only noradrenaline. Tricyclic antidepressants, such as Elavil, affect both.
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, such as Nardil, prevent enzymes from reacting with noradrenaline and serotonin. Wellbutrin and Serzone affect related reactions.
effects
People are not likely to misuse antidepressant drugs.
biology
Tryptophan is a serotonin precursor.
Drugs {clozapine} (Clozaril) {atypical antipsychotic} can weakly block dopamine receptors and affect glutamine receptors.
Drugs {buspiron} can excite serotonin-IA receptors.
Drugs {dopamine antagonist} can compete for dopamine receptor but have no metabolic effect themselves.
Aminated indoles {indoleamine} {indolamine} include serotonin, LSD, and psilocybin and affect serotonin system {5-HT system}.
Oxidases {monoamine oxidase}| (MAO) {MAO-A gene} can inactivate catecholamines, such as norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. Drugs {monoamine oxidase inhibitor} {MAO inhibitor} can inhibit monoamine oxidase and keep monoamine concentration high. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors can control aggression.
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors {tricyclic antidepressant} can treat endogenous depression.
Blood-sugar changing drugs {insulin, drug} can induce coma. Insulin is not in use in psychiatric treatment.
Drugs {Metrazol} can induce coma. Metrazol is not in use in psychiatric treatment.
Pain drugs {pain, drug} include salicylates, prostaglandin affectors, and opiates.
Drugs {opiate drug} can make people feel exhilarated {euphoriant, opiate} {euphoriogenic, opiate} and energetic and can relieve pain. Natural opiates include opium, codeine, Demerol, heroin, morphine, nepenthe, and thebaine. Synthetic opiates include methadone, fentanyl, and oxycodone. Opiates can cause physical and psychological dependence.
effects
Opiates bind to receptors {mu opiate receptor} in ventral tegmentum area (VTA) in midbrain and nucleus accumbens (NAc) {mesoaccumbens reward system}. Opiates reduce activity in neurons that inhibit dopamine neurons, so VTA dopamine increases and goes to NAc. NAc sends GABAergic effects to other brain areas that affect prefrontal cortex. Opiates block nociceptive system.
endogenous opiates
Body makes endorphin and enkaphalin opiates that reduce pain by releasing or uptaking neurotransmitters.
Opium poppies make chemical mixtures {opium}. Opium is for pain relief, relaxation, and recreation in some countries. Western peoples gave opium sedative to small children. In Far East, people smoked opium.
Intravenous drugs {cocaine, anesthetic} can bind to opiate receptors, reduce acetylcholine and substance-P release, and reduce pain. Cocaine maintains consciousness and can be a local anesthetic [1884].
stimulant
Cocaine, from coca leaves, affects sublenticular extended amygdala. Cocaine releases norepinephrine and dopamine from vesicles. Cocaine and other such stimulants affect synaptic transporter protein and so prevent dopamine and other catecholamine uptake into presynaptic terminals. Cocaine is a stimulant and euphoriant. It is not addictive [Earleywine, 2002] [Grinspoon and Bakalar, 1993]. Butyrylcholinesterase blood protein catabolizes cocaine.
Amines {codeine} derive from opium.
Intravenous drugs {fentanyl} can bind to opiate receptors, reduce acetylcholine and substance-P release, and reduce pain. Fentanyl maintains consciousness.
West Europe had opium tincture {laudanum}.
Drugs {methadone} can be heroin substitutes.
Intravenous amine alkaloid {morphine} derives from opium, binds to opiate receptors, reduces acetylcholine and substance-P release, and reduces pain. Morphine maintains consciousness.
Drugs {narcotic}| can be opium derivatives, such as opium, cocaine, and coca leaves.
opiate {nepenthe}.
Intravenous procaine hydrochloride {Novocaine} comes from cocaine, binds to opiate receptors, reduces acetylcholine and substance-P release, and reduces pain. Novocaine maintains consciousness.
Drugs {paregoric} can contain morphine, camphor, and aromatics.
Intravenous drugs {procaine} can remove methyl groups from DNA or prevent DNA methylation, come from cocaine, reduce acetylcholine and substance-P release, bind to opiate receptors, and reduce pain. Procaine maintains consciousness.
Intravenous drugs {sufentanyl} can bind to opiate receptors, reduce acetylcholine and substance-P release, and reduce pain. Sufentanyl maintains consciousness.
opiate {thebaine}.
Painkilling drugs {anti-inflammatory drug}| {COX-2 inhibitor} can inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 {cyclooxygenase} (COX) production, which builds prostaglandins, which cause inflammation.
Drugs {arthritis drug} can inhibit prostaglandin synthesis.
Aspirin and similar drugs {salicylate} can reduce pain and fever.
Modified aspirin {acetaminophen} reduces fever and pain.
Willow-bark salicylate {aspirin} {acetylsalicylic acid} reduces fever and pain [1899]. Aspirin inhibits pyrogens. Aspirin inhibits prostaglandin synthesis.
Aspirin, ibuprofen, Vioxx {rofecoxib}, and similar drugs {non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug} (NSAID) inhibit cyclooxygenases.
Barbiturates and other drugs {sedative} can lower brain activity {sedation, drugs} and make people sleepy. Drugs {GABAergic drug} can bind to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors and increase GABA effect. Hypnotic drugs and weak tranquilizers act similarly. Going to sleep also requires GABA receptor binding that increases effect of GABA. Barbiturates are addictive and eliminate Stage-IV NREM sleep and REM sleep. Benzodiazepines, such as Valium, are addictive, reduce anxiety, and eliminate Stage-IV NREM sleep. Sedatives {gamma-amino-hydroxybutyrate} (GHB) can be for mood {euphoriogenic drug} and anxiety {anxiolytic drug, sedative}. Zolpidem (Ambien) is much less addictive.
Nucleotides {adenosine, sleep} can cause sleep.
Interleukins {interleukin-1} can induce non-REM sleep.
Drugs {stimulant}| can make people feel energetic. Stimulants include amphetamines (Adderall), methylphenidates (Ritalin), modafinil (Provigil), cocaine, hallucinogens, LSD, mescaline, nicotine, and phencyclidine.
biology
Stimulants increase synapse dopamine concentrations by preventing forebrain presynaptic-neuron dopamine reuptake. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are similar to norepinephrine. Beta-blockers for hypertension bind to norepinephrine-receptor non-active sites and prevent norepinephrine binding.
effects
Stimulants decrease learning extinction. Cocaine and methampetamine are addictive stimulants.
Amphetamines, cocaine, and MDMA {analeptic}| can make people feel energetic.
Marijuana, cocaine, and opiates {euphoriant, stimulant}| make people feel exhilarated [Earleywine, 2002] [Grinspoon and Bakalar, 1993].
Analeptics {amphetamine}| can affect glutamine binding, release norepinephrine from vesicles, and increase dopamine release in frontal lobes and limbic system. Amphetamines can cause paranoid schizophrenia or worsen schizophrenic symptoms. Amphetamines improve short-term memory and transfer to long-term memory. Amphetamine, Benzedrine, Dexedrine, MDMA, Meratran, and Ritalin are amphetamines or methamphetamines.
South-American drinks {ayahuasca} can have dimethoxytryptamines and harmine, tetrahydroharmine, and harmaline beta-carbolines. Beta-carbolines inhibit monoamine oxidase, which breaks down DMT.
Areca nut, betel leaf, and lime mixture {betel} is from South Pacific.
Cacao, kola nut, tea, and coffee drugs {caffeine} can bind to adenosine-receptor non-active sites and prevent adenosine binding.
Coca-leaf stimulant {cocaine, stimulant} can affect sublenticular extended amygdala. Cocaine releases norepinephrine and dopamine from vesicles. Cocaine and similar stimulants affect synaptic-transporter proteins and so prevent dopamine and other catecholamine uptake into presynaptic terminals. Cocaine is also a euphoriant. Cocaine is not addictive [Earleywine, 2002] [Grinspoon and Bakalar, 1993].
Stimulants {guarana} can be from Amazon region.
Stimulants {kava} {keu} {kava-kava} {ava} {kawine} from South Pacific have pepper-family-plant kawine resins.
Stimulants {methylphenidate} can reduce narcolepsy.
Stimulants {phencyclidine} (PCP) {angel dust} can cause hallucinations and dissociation. PCP attaches to NMDA-receptor PCP receptor and so inhibits NMDA binding.
Mild stimulants {theobromine} can come from cacao plant.
Mild stimulants {theophylline} can come from tea.
Benzodiazepines and chlorpromazines {tranquilizer}| can make people feel calm. Tranquilizers attach to brain chemical receptors. Inosine and hypoxanthine are natural tranquilizers.
Tobacco contains amine {nicotine}. Nicotine stimulates VTA dopamine cells and calms.
Prozac and similar tranquilizers {selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor} (SSRI) can inhibit presynaptic-neuron serotonin resorption.
Chlorpromazine, Largactil, Thorazine, and haloperidol (Haldol) tranquilizers {phenothiazine} can block limbic-system and basal-ganglia dopamine-D2 receptors but not block other receptors. Phenothiazines can control hallucinations, delusions, and schizophrenia. Side effects can include restlessness in legs {akathisia}, involuntary movements {tardive dyskinesia}, and Parkinsonism.
Hiazines {chlorpromazine, tranquilizer} can block dopamine neurotransmitters. Chlorpromazine is also an ataraxic. Chlorpromazine relieves anxiety, depression, and obsession in schizophrenics.
Drugs {tissue drugs} can affect tissues.
Glimeperide and glipizide {sulfonylurea} are effective against type 2 diabetes. Metformin is for milder cases.
Lovastatin, pravastatin, and other drugs {statin} can lower blood cholesterol and hs-CRP. Simvastatin and atorvastatin (Lipitor) are stronger. Tumstatins are type-IV-collagen fragments, bind to endothelium aVb3 integrin, and promote angiogenesis. Endostatin and angiostatin are similar.
Bis-hydroxycoumarin {warfarin} {coumadin} prevents blood clotting. In high doses, it can be rat poison.
Chlorothiazides and similar drugs {diuretic} can lower blood pressure by excreting blood water.
Enalapril and lisinopil {acetylcholinesterase inhibitor} (ace inhibitor) can lower blood pressure by inhibiting enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine.
Atenolol and metoprolol {beta-blocker} can lower blood pressure by bind to norepinephrine-receptor non-active sites to prevent norepinephrine binding.
Diltiazem and verapamil {calcium-channel-blocker} can lower blood pressure by inhibiting membrane calcium-ion channels.
Methotrexate and other drugs {cancer, drug} can be for chemotherapy {5-FU} {6-mercaptopurine} {azetomicin} {cyclophosphamide}. Hormones can treat cancer {hormone therapy}. Radioactive chemicals can kill cancer cells {radiation therapy}.
Drugs {methotrexate} can be for chemotherapy.
Drugs {Dramamine} can relieve motion sickness.
Drugs {emetic}| can cause throwing up.
Drugs {enema}| can cause defecation.
Drugs {Kaopectate} can be for diarrhea.
Drugs {laxative}| can help constipated people defecate more easily.
Bromide solutions {bromo} can relieve upset stomach.
Magnesium hydroxide {milk of magnesia} neutralizes stomach acid.
Bicarbonate of soda {sodium bicarbonate} neutralizes stomach acid.
Drugs {digitalis, drug} can treat heart disease.
Excess magnesium ions {magnesium, ion} can block nerve activity.
Gases {nerve gas}| can affect acetylcholine metabolism.
Drugs {TH inhibitor} can slow increased chorea or athetosis movements of hyperkinesis.
Endothelium contains 21-amino-acid peptides {vasoconstrictor}| that constrict blood vessels.
Drugs {vasodilator}| can relax blood-vessel smooth-muscle cells and so make openings wider.
Chlorpromazine, reserpine, Miltown, Equanil, and meprobamate {ataraxic drug} are muscle relaxers.
Hiazines {chlorpromazine, ataraxic} can block dopamine neurotransmitter, are tranquilizers and ataraxics, and can relieve anxiety, depression, and obsession in schizophrenics.
Sarpaganda, snakeroot, and rauwolfia alkaloid {reserpine} can tranquilize without drowsiness, cause low blood pressure, and interfere with vesicle catecholamine storage.
Isopropyl alcohol {rubbing alcohol} is for cleaning skin.
Drugs {antihistamine} can block histamine chemical reactions and reduce allergy symptoms.
Hemimorphite and zinc ointment {calomel} {calamine lotion} relieves skin itching.
Drugs {cortisone} can be corticosteroids.
Body chemicals {histamine, itch} can cause inflammation.
Chemicals {glycerin} can moisten dry skin.
Chemicals {humectant}| can moisten skin.
Petroleum-hydrocarbon gels {petrolatum} can keep moisture in dry skin.
Chemicals {emollient}| can soothe skin.
Chemicals {lanolin} can soothe skin.
Chemicals {liniment}| can soothe or heal skin.
Gels {unguent}| can soothe skin.
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Description of Outline of Knowledge Database
Date Modified: 2022.0225