Smoking, excessive alcohol, poor prenatal care, malnutrition, failure to breathe properly, baby battering, and falls can damage brains {brain damage} [Gershan and Rieder, 1992].
Congenital cerebral-cortex defects can cause inability to add two numbers to sums greater than ten {adding problem}. Children can learn digits but cannot carry to next column when adding.
Brainstem pressure can cause drowsiness {coning}, unconsciousness, respiratory paralysis, and ultimately death.
Animals with no cortex {cortical absence} cannot discriminate well but can learn and remember.
Cerebral-hemisphere damage can cause opposite-body-side arm and leg weakness {hemiplegia, cerebrum}.
Hypothalamus damage can affect sexual development and smell {Kallman syndrome}.
Inferior prefrontal lobe controls planning and action. After inferior-prefrontal-lobe stroke or lesion, external stimuli can start automatic behavior, with no inhibition {Lhermitte syndrome}.
Nerves can have inflammation {neuritis}|.
People can have general nerve problems {neuropathy}.
Brain-half anatomy and function differ {lateralization, cerebral}. Brain halves integrate by cross connections.
split brain
After corpus-callosum surgery {callosotomy} {split brain}, patients feel the same as before, with one self and same consciousness [Akelaitis, 1941] [Akelaitis, 1944] [Bogen, 1986] [Bogen, 1993] [Bogen, 1997] [Bogen and Gazzaniga, 1965] [Bogen and Gordon, 1970] [Bogen et al., 1965] [Gazzaniga, 1995] [Gazzaniga, 2004] [Geschwind and Galaburda, 1987] [Gordon and Bogen, 1974] [Greenblatt, 1997] [Kinsbourne, 1982] [Kohler et al., 2000] [Luck et al., 1989] [Luck et al., 1994] [Mark, 1996] [Miller et al., 2000] [O'Shea and Corballis, 2001] [Pettigrew and Miller, 1998] [Schiffer, 2000] [Schmitt and Worden, 1974] [Sperry, 1961] [Sperry, 1974] [Wigan, 1844].
However, experiments that detect what hemispheres know show that split-brain patients can have two consciousnesses. Consciousness can be only or mainly in left side, be only reportable from left side, be always both sides, or automatically switch back and forth between two selves.
right brain
Right brain has minimal attention, consciousness, emotion, imagery, memory, perception, verbal ability, and will.
connections: corpus callosum
Corpus callosum carries high-level information, mostly excitation. People can have impaired corpus callosum from birth {callosal agenesis} and develop integrative and substitute processing.
connections: other
Information about existence and spatial and temporal locations can pass between brain halves through smaller interhemispheric pathways and by relay through brainstem and thalamus.
self
Self or mind integrates brain modules through corpus callosum, brainstem, thalamus, and other pathways, by inhibition and excitation.
interpreter
Patients with severed commissures have no information exchange, but hemisphere with language ability {the interpreter} invents explanations. Only that hemisphere is highly conscious [Gazzaniga, 1992].
drugs
Amobarbitol can anesthetize either hemisphere.
locations: arousal
Arousal mechanisms affect both hemispheres equally.
locations: attention
Attention from brainstem and midbrain goes to both hemispheres, each of which can try to control attention.
locations: hearing
Ear sound information mostly goes to other side.
locations: language
Broca's area semantic-and-syntactic language processing is typically only in left hemisphere. However, both sides have vocabulary and perception processing.
locations: pain
Pain information goes to both hemispheres.
locations: proprioception
Proprioception information goes to both hemispheres.
locations: space and time
Right hemisphere seems better at high-level spatiotemporal processing.
locations: touch
Touch information goes to both sides, though less to same side.
locations: vision
Visual information from right or left visual field goes to left or right hemisphere, but patients have unified visual fields.
locations: voluntary movement
Eye-saccade initiation and monitoring and voluntary large-muscle movement are on both sides.
factors: age
With age, corpus callosum has more myelination.
factors: gender
Men have more language lateralization.
ear ringing {tinnitus}|.
Vestibular-system damage can cause dizziness {vertigo}|.
Excess cerebrospinal fluid {hydrocephaly} can cause larger than normal brain cavities and skulls.
People can have larger than normal heads and brains {macrocephaly}.
People can have smaller than normal heads and brains {microcephaly}.
Acetylcholine and serotonin brain neurons can degenerate {Alzheimer's disease} {Alzheimer disease}, with intracellular tangled protein fibers {neurofibrillary tangle} and extracellular protein amyloid plaques.
plaque
Amyloid plaques can disrupt calcium regulation, create free radicals, or attract microglia. Presenilin gene makes gamma-secretase, which cuts cell-membrane protein {amyloid-beta precursor protein} (APP) inside membranes, and beta-secretase {secretase} cuts APP outside membranes, to make short A-beta proteins, which can be signal proteins. A-beta proteins can link hydrophobic ends to form plaques. Apolipoprotein E {apolipoprotein} (APOE-4) helps A-beta protein form plaques and slows A-beta protein removal. APP gene is on chromosome 21.
incidence
In USA, five million people have Alzheimer's disease. At age 60, 1 in 10,000 people develops Alzheimer's disease. By age 85, one in three people have dementia, typically Alzheimer's disease.
causes
Gene {presenilin gene} mutations can cause early-onset inherited Alzheimer's disease.
Apolipoprotein-E-gene isotype can modulate familial and sporadic Alzheimer's disease onset age.
Proteins {tau protein} can bind to tubulin, change, and increase in Alzheimer's disease. Tau proteins then make helical pairs, disrupting tubulin binding and microtubules.
Small proteins {amyloid beta-derived diffusible ligand} (ADDL) can come from amyloid-beta precursor proteins, can diffuse, do not make plaques, and attach to neuron receptors.
Brain proteins {clusterin} can increase in Alzheimer's disease.
Brain or brain blood-vessel degeneration {dementia}| {senile dementia} can be chronic and progressive.
symptoms
Recent-event memory loss is first symptom. People have intellect, memory, and personality impairment, but no consciousness or basic-skill impairment. People have unreal and slow thinking. People have slowness of, and disinterest in, activity. People forget goals, do not compensate for changes, live in present only, are emotionally sensitive, and are susceptible to bulbar palsy. At end, people lose basic personality and social skills.
causes
About 10% of older dementia patients have benign brain tumors and hypothyroidism.
types
Subnormality, old-age dementias, and remitting and relapsing psychoses are milder. Acute, primary, and curable dementias are harsher. Chronic, secondary, and incurable dementias are harsher.
recovery
Dementia reverses in 10% of patients.
Tau-protein buildup causes slowly developing dementia {Pick's disease} {frontotemporal dementia} in people 50 to 60 years old.
Repeated closures of small or large blood vessels, as in minor or major strokes, causes brain-cell loss {multi-infarct dementia}.
After pneumonia, heart attack, or hypothermia, older people can enter delirious states {pseudodementia}. Antidepressants reduce pseudodementia.
Old-age organic psychosis {senility}| can involve memory loss and poor thinking ability.
Fever, alcohol intoxication, drugs, withdrawal from barbiturates, withdrawal from alcohol, disturbances in body chemistry, and brain infections can cause delirium {delirium tremens}| (DTs). Most delirious patients recover completely after removing cause.
People can have desire to drink alcohol {dipsomania}.
Addicts that take MPTP destroy dopamine neurons and cannot move {frozen addict}, though conscious.
Alcohol can damage corpus callosum and anterior commissure {Marchhiafava-Bignami disease}.
Metal toxins {metal poisoning}, such as mercury or lead, can damage brains.
Drugs or anesthetics can cause stupor {narcosis, stupor}|.
People can starve themselves, fear becoming fat, think about being thin, have distorted body perception, overestimate size, and have abnormal hypothalamus, which controls appetite {anorexia nervosa}|.
After strong desire {compulsive eating} {binge eating} causes eating large quantities, people can vomit or use laxatives {bulimia nervosa}|.
Herpes simplex and other viruses can cause brain inflammation {encephalitis}| {aseptic encephalitis} {acute viral encephalitis}.
A 1920s epidemic viral disease {encephalitis lethargica} destroyed same brain cells as idiopathic Parkinsonism.
Bacteria or viruses can cause meninges inflammation {meningitis}|.
Though sense organs and nerves are normal, people can interpret sense information incorrectly {agnosia}. Agnosias can be for objects, colors in achromatopsia, faces in prosopagnosia, motions in akinetopsia, or imposters in Capgras syndrome [Bauer and Demery, 2003] [Bridgeman et al., 1997] [Damasio et al., 2000] [Farah, 1990] [Goodale, 2000] [Goodale and Milner, 2004] [Goodale et al., 1994] [Grüsser and Landis, 1991] [Heilman and Valenstein, 2003] [Hu and Goodale, 2000] [Mesulam, 2000] [Milner and Goodale, 1995] [Milner et al., 1991].
People with right-brain damage can deny that they have problems with, or paralysis of, left hand and arm {anosagnosia, disease} {anosodiaphoria}.
People with right-parietal damage think that objects on left reflected in mirrors on right are behind mirrors on right {mirror agnosia} {looking-glass syndrome}.
Left angular-gyrus damage {Gertsmann's syndrome} {Gertsmann syndrome} can cause anomia, finger agnosia, and left/right problems.
Non-dominant, usually right, posterior-parietal-lobe damage can cause ignorance {neglect, vision}| {visuo-spatial hemi-neglect} {hemi-neglect} of stimulus that normally stimulates V1 in opposite, usually left, space half {hemifield}, including opposite body half. Patients do not realize that they cannot see that space side. Right or left Brodmann-area-7 damage can cause neglect of opposite-space half [Berti and Rizolatti, 1992] [Bisiach, 1988] [Bisiach, 1992] [Bisiach and Luzzatti, 1978] [Driver and Mattingley, 1998] [Heilman and Valenstein, 2003] [Heilman et al., 2003] [Husain and Rorden, 2003] [Karnath, 2001] [Karnath et al., 2001] [Marshall and Halligan, 1988] [Mattingley, 1998] [Payne et al., 1996] [Rafal, 1997] [Rees et al., 2000] [Robertson and Marshall, 1993] [Schiller et al., 1979] [Sprague, 1966] [Swick and Knight, 1998] [Vuilleumier et al., 1996] [Vuilleumier et al., 2002].
Non-dominant posterior-parietal-lobe damage can cause neglect when stimulus is in same space half as lobe {extinction, neglect}. In extinction, if something is on one side, people can see object, typically on right side, but they cannot see anything on other side, though brain activity is same in both cases (Geraint Rees).
agnosia
People with neglect can not recognize that they are neglecting space half {anosagnosia, neglect}. People with right-parietal-lobe damage can have paralysis but not know that they have it [Damasio, 1999] [Weiskrantz, 1997]. Perhaps, they have no information receptors for that part. Perhaps, they cannot direct attention there.
realization
People realize that they cannot see that space side if expected information is not available.
People can not know that body parts belong to them {somatoparaphrenia}.
Agnosia can be for faces {prosopagnosia}. Inability to recognize faces involves more than one brain part [Benton and Tranel, 1993] [Perrett et al., 1992] [Tranel and Damasio, 1985] [Wada and Yamamoto, 2001].
After damage to both parietal lobes, people can not perceive more than one object {simultagnosia}, as in Balint syndrome.
People can be unable to retrieve memories {amnesia, disease}|. Amnesias can have long-term memory loss but retain short-term memory. People typically cannot remember events from when amnesia started up to recent times in the past.
duration
Amnesias can last several years. Over time, people remember earlier memories, as well as independent episodes. People typically can never remember time just before amnesia started.
types
People can be unable to identify people whom they know in other contexts {restricted paramnesia}. Autobiographical memory loss {fission, memory} can cause personal identity loss and inability to use first person.
causes
Electroconvulsive shock, potassium chloride, fluorothyl, barbiturates, and RNA, DNA, and protein synthesis-inhibiting drugs can cause forgetting and retrograde amnesia but can be offset by stimulants.
Head blows can cause memory loss with no other effects {postconcussion syndrome}.
Medial-temporal-lobe ischemia causes disorientation and recent-memory loss {transient global amnesia}.
Removing both temporal lobes and both hippocampuses, to treat epilepsy, causes orthograde amnesia.
recovery
Amnesias can heal but not if brain damage is permanent.
People can be unable to make long-term memories {anterograde amnesia}.
Amnesias {Korsakoff syndrome}| can have inattentiveness, poor recent memory, retrograde amnesia, anterograde amnesia, and time and place disorientation. Chronic alcoholics with poor nutrition can have Korsakoff syndrome. It affects third-ventricle floor, thalamus dorsomedial nucleus, hippocampal region, mamillary bodies, and frontal lobes [Korsakoff, 1887] [Korsakoff, 1890].
Hippocampus damage can cause loss of recently stored memories {retrograde amnesia}. Time lost depends on memory type and strength.
People can be unable to concentrate and can have high activity {attention deficit disorder}| (ADD) {attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, brain} (ADHD). Perhaps, it involves dopamine receptors. Ritalin is a treatment.
Both-hemisphere parietal-lobe damage causes attention on only one thing {Balint's syndrome} {Balint syndrome} [Feinberg and Farah, 1997] [Rafal, 1997] [Robertson, 2003] [Robertson et al., 1997].
Organic psychoses can involve shaking convulsions {epilepsy}| {seizure, epilepsy} {convulsion} [Elger, 2000] [Fried, 1997] [Oxbury et al., 2000] [Penfield and Jasper, 1954] [Salloway et al., 1997].
cause
Strong electrical signals can cause altered consciousness, altered perception, and poor opposite-body-side muscle control.
types
Whole brain can become electrically abnormal {primary generalized seizure}. Cerebral-cortex regions can become electrically abnormal in focal seizure.
start
Seizures can begin with abdominal sensations, altered thoughts, or altered perceptions, which people can remember afterwards.
symptoms
Epileptic states {epileptic automatism} can involve large brain regions, unconsciousness, chewing, lip smacking, organized but purposeless arm or hand movements, laughing, being scared, and using isolated words. States can last for several minutes, mostly in temporal lobe. Normal function, deep sleep, or disoriented state follows. People have no memory of automatisms.
incidence
6% of people have at least one epileptic seizure.
factors: age
Seizures are more likely in early childhood, adolescence, and old age. Petit-mal seizures happen mostly in childhood and adolescence.
factors: genetics
Epilepsy is hereditary, especially temporal-lobe epilepsy.
drugs
Gamma-aminobutyric acid treats epilepsy.
In petit-mal epilepsy, tonic phase and consciousness loss can last several seconds, and people can stare blankly {absence, epilepsy} with eyelid flickering and/or facial and arm muscle twitching [Crunelli and Leresche, 2002]. Large repeated currents between thalamus and cortex cause absence. People do not fall to ground.
Seizures can begin with abdominal sensations, altered thoughts, or altered perceptions, which people can remember afterwards {aura, epilepsy}. Electrically stimulating brains elicits images and sense qualities that are like the dream-like sense qualities that patients experience when epileptic, and removing brain tissue does not delete the sense qualities [Penfield, 1958] [Penfield, 1975] [Penfield and Perot, 1963].
Epilepsy can have upward arm jerk, head nod, and forward trunk bend {myoclonic jerk}.
Epilepsy {petit mal seizure} can involve one brain region and have twitching, consciousness, and weird feelings, tastes, or smells. Focal epilepsy can have a déja vu "dreamy state" experience.
Epilepsy {grand mal seizure} {grand-mal convulsion} {tonic-clonic convulsion} can involve whole brain, whole-body seizures, consciousness loss, and repeated muscle tightening and relaxing [Canger et al., 1980] [Ebner et al., 1995] [Gloor, 1986] [Gloor et al., 1980] [Inoue and Mihara, 1998] [Lux et al., 2002] [Pedley and Guilleminault, 1977] [Reeves, 1985]. Muscles can stiffen symmetrically, people can cry out, breathing can stop briefly, and people can lose consciousness {tonic phase}. Then people can fall to ground and have muscle jerking {clonic phase}. Cyanosis blue color can develop around lips or face, bladder can empty, bowels can empty, and people can bite tongue. Left-hemisphere seizures more often result in consciousness loss.
People can lose ability to write {agraphia}. If lexically impaired, people can correctly write words spelled phonologically, but not words spelled non-phonologically {lexical agraphia}. If phonologically impaired, people can write words correctly {phonological agraphia} but write non-words incorrectly.
Frontal-temporal-borderline damage can cause lexical problems, circumlocutions, and incorrect words, without losing language comprehension, syntax, or phonemes. People can be unable to name objects {anomia} {anomic aphasia}, though they can see, read, and recognize.
People can have impaired speaking {aphasia}|. Sometimes, speech does not connect {jargon aphasia}. Frontal-temporal borderline damage can cause phoneme-usage errors {conduction aphasia}, without comprehension or fluency loss.
Patients can have good language but lack emotional responses {Asperger's syndrome} {Asperger syndrome}.
Broca's area damage {Broca's aphasia} {Broca aphasia} causes slow, slurred, hesitant, and non-fluent speech, with preposition, conjunction, and auxiliary-verb omissions and incorrect verb or noun endings. Damage still allows people to write, read, listen, and sing.
People can lose ability to classify objects by name {classifying disorder}.
People can read with difficulty, spell badly, and have other problems with written language {dyslexia}|. Dyslexics cannot identify sounds, use phonemes together, or identify complex-figure parts. Dyslexics typically do not have strong right-handedness or left-handedness. Maturation delay, not brain damage or emotional problems, can cause resistance to learning and so dyslexia. People can have trouble only with grammar {grammar-specific language impairment}.
Strokes can cause speaking, writing, reading, or listening impairments {dysphasia}.
Dominant gene mutant can cause people not to use grammatical rules {familial dysphasia}.
Large left-hemisphere damage can cause normal-language loss {global aphasia} but does not affect automatic language.
Changed chromosome-7 gene can cause poor grammar with normal intelligence {specific language impairment} (SLI).
Though sense organs and nerves are normal, people can be unable to identify objects by touch {tactile agnosia}.
Chromosome 7 or 11 deletions can cause voluble language but mental retardation {Williams syndrome}.
Wernicke's area damage can cause inability to read {alexia}. Brain can block phonology {deep alexia} and/or block lexical stage {surface alexia}.
Wernicke's area damage can cause incorrect words {paraphasia}.
Wernicke's area damage can cause inability to name objects by palpating {tactile aphasia}.
Wernicke's area damage can cause non-existent words {neologism, aphasia}.
Wernicke's area damage {Wernicke's aphasia} {Wernicke aphasia} can cause bad semantics, paraphasia, imprecise words, circumlocutions, and neologisms, but speech is fluent, rapid, articulated, and grammatical.
Wernicke's area damage can cause inability to understand spoken words {word-meaning deafness} {word deafness}, though people can hear and speak them.
People can have mental disorders {mental illness}.
types
Brain diseases and physical illnesses can cause mental disorders. Psychoses, neuroses, personality disorders, and mental retardation {functional disorder} can show no definite physical problem. People cannot simulate mental illness consistently.
causes
Family-member or other-loved-person loss, job loss, illness, or development changes can cause mental illness.
mental health
People can affect mental illness {mental health}. People can have ability to cooperate with others and have close, loving relationships. People can make sensitive critical appraisals of themselves and world. People can cope with everyday problems.
Healthy personality has the following traits: good self-concept, self-knowledge, strong self-attitudes, self-acceptance, reality sense, active involvement in society, no inferiority feelings, good sexual attitudes, independence, objectivity, low aggression, low submissiveness, ability to give and accept love, average competitiveness, and continuous growth.
incidence
0.05% of people have neuroses. Ten percent of doctor visits are mostly about mental problems. 10% of such patients go to psychiatrists. Psychiatric patients use nearly half of all hospital beds.
Mental states {aboulia} {abulia} can have little will and inability to make decisions, such as akinetic mutism.
Mental states {apathy}| can have little emotion, listlessness, self-preoccupation, and detachment from environment.
Damage in connections between visual and emotional centers can cause people to believe that imposters have replaced familiar people {Capgras syndrome} [Ramachandran, 2004].
People can feel that they are not perception agents {Cotard syndrome} {Cotard's syndrome}. They can feel that they are dead. They have no emotional responses to experiences.
Frustration can cause fixed and unusual beliefs {delusion}|. Delusions protect against anxiety by explaining away facts that cause anxiety. If someone challenges their delusions, people have small or inappropriate emotional responses. Delusions and hallucinations are major symptoms of several mental illnesses.
People can have perceptions like in dreams, in which everything is vague or unreal and familiar things have no meaning {derealization}|. People can feel either that they have been changed or that world is unreal. They can have unreal and strange feelings.
Destroying fibers connecting cerebral hemispheres {disconnection syndrome} can cause inability to understand written language {pure alexia} {pure word-blindness} {alexia without agraphia}, comprehend spoken language {pure word-deafness}, or write correct language {pure agraphia} without paralysis. People can be unable to make purposeful skilled movements {apraxia, disconnection} and to move in response to verbal commands, though they can comprehend words.
People can have two personalities, each with amnesia for the other {dissociative identity disorder} (DID).
Stress can initiate old stereotyped responses {fixation, obsession}|, such as obsessive or compulsive actions, to new stimuli.
People can believe that known people are impersonating other people {Fregoli phenomenon}.
Schizophrenia, dissociative identity disorder, and other diseases show abnormal identity experience {Ich-Störungen}.
People can like to hurt themselves {Lesch-Nyhan syndrome} [Ramachandran, 2004].
Severe mental illnesses {lunacy}| require intervention by society, which must infringe civil rights.
People can show uncontrolled excitement, feel self-important, have well-being and elation, be over-active, make grandiose pronouncements, and perform obsessive behaviors {mania}|. Mania is much less common than depression. Drugs that raise monoamine levels can cause mania.
Depressive illness {melancholia}| can include loss and guilt, and loss has symbolic significance.
Women can have sexual promiscuity {nymphomania}|.
People can have delusions {paranoia}| {paranoid state} of grandeur and/or persecution.
symptoms
They are suspicious, are highly sensitive, project fears, believe that their beliefs are correct and justified, and do not believe that they are ill. They attack people that they think persecute them, quarrel with neighbors, accuse people of trespassing, or accuse spouses of infidelity.
factors
Paranoics have no intellectual deficits, hallucinations, emotional withdrawal, or disrupted syntax.
causes
Paranoia is a disorder of self-esteem and stress. Narcissistic self-overestimation is a typical reaction to humiliation during infancy and childhood. Paranoic ideas and anxieties are impulse projections.
treatment
Paranoia is not treatable now.
comparisons
Artists, and political and religious leaders, can mimic paranoia.
Frontal-lobe damage can cause repeated behaviors {perseveration, behavior}|. Wisconsin card-sorting test diagnosis it.
People can be unable to resist compulsion, obsession, or phobia {psychasthenia}.
Personal behavior can violate group moral code {psychopathic personality}.
Organic diseases {psychosomatic disease}| can associate with psychological factors.
types
Psychosomatic diseases include psychosomatic atopic dermatitis, anorexia nervosa, bronchial asthma, essential hypertension, gastric and duodenal ulcer, myocardial infarction, and ulcerative colitis. Heart disease, cancer, gastro-intestinal-tract disease, pulmonary tuberculosis, suicide, and accidents can also be psychosomatic.
cause
Stress caused by confinement, restraint, and frustration can affect organs.
individual
No disease is distinctively psychosomatic. Psychosomatic disease is peculiar to each patient and re-occurs.
age
Psychosomatic disease symptoms begin before age six and are real physiological disturbances.
People can ignore other's feelings or treat people as objects or things {depersonalization reaction}|. They can feel identity loss and body separation. They can have out-of-body experiences. Depersonalization can happen in relaxed periods after intense excitement and danger.
Depersonalization causes loss of perspective of outside world {Angstvolle Ich-Auflösung} {ego-dissolution}.
People can have maladaptive, socially unacceptable, or personally distressing habits {neurosis}| {psychoneurosis}.
symptoms
Neurosis symptoms include avoidance of others, self-indulgence, turning against others, self-deprivation, and turning against self. Neurosis symptoms are similar to normal-people feelings and thoughts but stronger.
onset
People can learn neurotic behaviors in early childhood.
persistence
Neurosis resists modification through learning. It persists because it protects against overt or hidden anxiety.
gender
Women outnumber men neurotics two to one.
types
Neuroses include functional disorders, such as limb paralysis or erectile impotence. They include alcohol dependence, anxieties, compulsions, drug dependence, hysteria, obsessive-compulsive disorders, personality disorders, phobias, sexual deviations, and disorders specific to childhood and adolescence.
neurotic personality types
Neurotic personality types include abnormal, cyclothymic, hysterical, obsessional, paranoid, schizoid, sociopathic, and vulnerable. Abnormal personalities have overreactions to anxiety. Cyclothymic personalities alternate in energy level. Hysterical personalities use repression and dissociation, especially in classic conversion hysteria. Obsessional personalities have rigid mental structures, possibly defenses against strong instinctual drives. Paranoid personalities use projection in behavior and thinking. Schizoid personalities use different personalities to hide anxieties. Anxiety and frustration can cause sociopathic personalities, likely to harm others. Vulnerable personalities cannot cope with everyday stresses, feel inadequate, seek attention, and are histrionic.
The most common neurosis {anxiety reaction}| {anxiety state} involves acute fear, triggered by stimulus or conflict. People can have recurring or persistent fears or panic and have active autonomic nervous systems, with sweating, tremors, faintness, choking, breathlessness, and stomach queasiness.
Neurosis {character disorder} can involve behavior or personality alterations.
Neurosis {hysteria} {conversion reaction}| {conversion hysteria} can be defense against stress.
symptoms
Hysteria can involve speech abnormalities, multiple personalities, histrionic behaviors, attention-seeking behaviors, manipulative behaviors, flirtatious behaviors, little self-criticism, susceptibility to suggestion, paralyzed limbs, convulsions, sensation loss, blindness, ataxic gait, throat constriction, fugue, dissociation, twilight states, amnesias, and shallow and labile emotions.
brain
Two-thirds of hysteria patients have brain injury or neurological disease.
Neurosis {depression, psychology}| {depressive neurosis} {depressive reaction} {unipolar affective disorder} can involve hopelessness, helplessness, despair, suicidal ideas, feelings of no control, edginess, irritability, and guilt. People tire easily, have low concentration, have poor appetite, lose weight, have constipation, have low sex drive, have light non-REM sleep, have low interest in things, and have earlier, longer, and more intense first REM sleep.
drugs
Drugs that deplete brain-messenger monoamines can induce depression. Drugs that raise monoamine level relieve depression.
factors
Artificial light and sleep deprivation reduce depression.
cause
Death, divorce, and other losses often cause depression [Wolpert, 2001].
Neurosis {hypochondria}| {hypochondriacal reaction} can involve unreasonable worries about health.
Neurosis {neurasthenic reaction} {neurasthenia}| can involve nervousness, fatigue, weakness, and headache. Conflicts about masturbation, or inability to resolve doubt or uncertainty, can cause it.
Neurosis {thought disorder}| can involve delusion, dissociation, obsession, and phobia.
Neurosis {obsessive-compulsive reaction}| {obsessive-compulsive neurosis} can involve absurd-idea recurrence.
symptoms
It can have odd behavior impulses, like kleptomania, pyromania, and poriomania. It can have compulsion. It can have obsession. People can be overly conventional, conscientious, reliable, scrupulous, or punctual. They can think about harm, contamination, sex, and sin. They can think repetitively about abstract problems. They can continually manipulate words and numbers. They can have fears of harming someone. They can fear dirt contamination. They can continually wash hands or check water taps. They often recognize their fears are silly.
incidence
Obsessive-compulsive reaction is rare.
Mental states {compulsion}| can have uncontrollable desires to do odd behaviors.
Mental states {obsession}| can have fixed thoughts.
Compulsions {kleptomania}| can involve stealing.
Compulsions {poriomania} can have continual movement.
Compulsions {pyromania}| can have fire setting.
Specific emotional stimuli can cause habitual behaviors {repetition compulsion}.
People can have serious perception and thought disorders and so do not know reality {psychosis}|. Psychoses can be organic or functional. Severe mental illness is rare. Psychosis is equally frequent in both sexes. Psychoses can originate in childhood.
Psychosis {functional psychosis} can involve psychological factors with no obvious body or brain diseases, such as faulty interactions in family. Functional psychoses include schizophrenia, affective psychosis, manic-depressive psychosis, involutional melancholia, and paranoia. Biochemical brain changes can cause functional psychoses.
Functional psychosis {manic-depressive psychosis} {affective psychosis} {bipolar affective disorder}| can involve mood extremes: first, flighty ideas and wildness and then profound apathy, despair, and little control. Manic-depression can be hereditary but also happens to extroverts under stress. Difficult life, bereavement, and loss can cause manic-depression. 15% of manic-depressive people die by suicide. Lithium prevents relapses.
Loss, menopause, middle age, or morbid feelings can cause agitated depression and functional psychosis {involutional melancholia}.
Psychosis {organic psychosis} can result from brain degenerative structural changes. Organic psychoses include senile dementia, presenile dementia, arteriosclerotic dementia, and alcoholic dementia.
Adolescent or young adult males {sociopath}| {antisocial psychopath} can be unable to conform to society rules.
symptoms
They cannot tolerate minor frustrations. They cannot form stable human relationships. They do not learn from experiences. They act impulsively or recklessly. They feel predominantly inadequate, aggressive, or creative.
effect
They typically die from accidents, suicide, or alcoholism.
treatment
Treatment to learn rational judgment and gain will to control antisocial behavior can help sociopaths. Medical treatment is currently useless or unused. By middle life, many sociopaths have adapted to society, without medical treatment.
Functional psychosis {schizophrenia}| {dementia praecox} can have delusions, hallucinations, memory disturbances, ideas of reference, volition problem, and dementia. Schizophrenics think their minds and wills are not under their control. They think that thoughts are being put into, or removed from, their minds. They suspect that someone is hypnotizing them.
incidence
About 1% of people have schizophrenia. Incidence has been the same for 50 years.
recovery
Individual episodes typically end with previous-personality recovery. Recovered schizophrenics can relapse after contact with critical and involved relatives. 80% of schizophrenic patients recover from first attack. Only 50% remain healthy. 10% of schizophrenic patients are long-term hospital in-patients. People can improve even after years of hospitalization.
properties: 4 A's
Schizophrenia has autistic thinking, emotion ambivalence and withdrawal, apathy and low emotional level with affect lack, inappropriate emotions, and unconnected thought and words with association lack.
properties: behavior
Schizophrenia causes agitation. Schizophrenia can show low spontaneity, simple speech, and slow movement. Schizophrenics have abnormal eye movements. They change mental-function distribution between cerebral hemispheres. They have difficulty processing incoming information.
properties: emotion
Schizophrenics lose interest in, and respond unemotionally to, other people.
properties: memory
Schizophrenics can lose discussion point. Schizophrenia can lessen memory formation and problem solving.
properties: speech
Schizophrenia can involve unusual associations to words or questions, with rambling and incoherent answers.
properties: will
Schizophrenics lose energy and are apathetic.
types
Schizophrenia types are catatonic, childhood, hebephrenic, paranoid, pseudoneurotic, schizo-affective, and simple.
factors
Schizophrenia has same types and frequencies in all environments and cultures. Schizophrenia does not increase in wars or other catastrophes.
causes
Trauma or intense family pressure can cause schizophrenia. Schizophrenia can transmit genetically.
causes: theory
Both nature and nurture cause schizophrenia {diathesis stress model}.
biochemistry
Schizophrenia lowers glutamate and increases NAAG, kynurenic acid, and homocysteine, which all affect NMDA receptors. D-cycloserine, D-serine, and glycine stimulate NMDA receptors. D-amino acid oxidase catabolizes D-serine. Catechol-O-methyltransferase affects dopamine metabolism, mainly in prefrontal lobes. Dysbindin and neuregulin affect number of NMDA receptors.
biochemistry: dopamine
Excess dopamine causes more activity. Low dopamine causes low activity. In schizophrenics, amygdala contains abnormal dopamine quantities. Dopamine D1 receptors are in frontal lobes. Cortex and brainstem receptors differ. A dopamine receptor binds dopamine antagonist drugs. Amphetamines, apomorphine, clozapine, etomidate, ketamine, Levodopa, phencyclidine, and phenothiazines affect schizophrenia.
tests
Tests for actions are Tower of London and Wisconsin Card-Sorting tests.
Schizophrenics can have opposite ideas about same things {ambivalence}.
People can have intellectual deficits, hallucinations, emotional withdrawal, and disrupted syntax {autistic thinking}.
People can visualize images {hallucination, schizophrenia} as sensations {psychosensory hallucination} or thoughts {psychic hallucination}. Schizophrenics typically hear voices talking to or about them. People can hear sounds {outer voices} or internally hear {inner voices} insistent voices that seem to come from outside. They hear voices telling them what to do, commenting on or repeating their thoughts, discussing among themselves, or threatening to kill them. Voices can give commands {command hallucination}.
Schizophrenics can have delusions, hallucinations, and memory disturbances, and can attribute incorrect object characteristics {ideas of reference}.
Schizophrenics can have apathy, low emotion, or inappropriate emotions {lack of affect}.
Schizophrenics can lose coordination between different mental functions {splitting}, particularly between cognitive and emotional personality aspects.
Schizophrenics can feel that thoughts are not their own thoughts, but someone else put them in their minds or they are someone else's thoughts {thought insertion}.
Schizophrenics can have little will {volition problem}.
Schizophrenia {catatonic schizophrenia} can involve excitement and then stupor and immobility.
Schizophrenia {hebephrenic schizophrenia} can involve withdrawal, bizarre mannerisms, and personal neglect.
Schizophrenia {paranoid schizophrenia} can involve disrupted syntax, autistic thinking, hallucinations, and emotional withdrawal.
People can have pain when trying to move limbs that had chronic pain {learned pain} [Ramachandran, 2004].
Fifth cranial nerve can feel sharp pain or shock in jaw or cheek {neuralgia}|. From 6 to 12 years, children can have restlessness and/or twitching, symptoms of tension from repressed needs or conflicts.
Insula senses pain and anterior cingulate has emotions, so damage to path from insula to anterior cingulate allows pain sensations but causes no emotions {pain asymbolia} [Ramachandran, 2004].
Skin can feel burning, prickling, itching, tingling, and numbness {paresthesia}, usually in extremities.
Meningeal blood-vessel swelling, which stretches nerves, causes primary headaches {headache}| {primary headache}. Hormones, stress, and little sleep act on brain pain centers to produce serotonin and norepinephrine and cause blood-vessel swelling. Sinus pressure, pinched nerves, or irritation causes secondary headaches.
Headaches {migraine}| can be strong pains at one point.
symptoms
Days or hours before onset, mood, behavior, wakefulness, appetite, bowel activity, and/or fluid balance change. In 10%, sensation disturbances, lasting for 20 to 30 minutes, precede headache. Sense disturbance and pain can be on same or opposite body side.
biology
Migraines are non-bacterial inflammatory responses, which release neurokinines or other pain-producing substances and dilate meningeal and scalp blood vessels.
Progressive cortical blood-supply loss, or neuron intercellular-fluid neurochemical disturbance, can be causes. In 20%, foods containing biogenic amines or complex phenols can be causes. Vasoactive monoamine serotonin and other neurotransmitter changes can be causes.
causes
Causes are stress, glare, flashing lights, striped patterns, menstrual cycle, and sexual activity.
effects
Migraine can cause nausea or vomiting. Recovery from migraine takes hours.
age
Attacks typically begin before age 30 and decrease in frequency with age.
After small injuries, people can later have acute pain, swelling, inflammation, and paralysis {complex regional pain type 1} [Ramachandran, 2004].
After small injuries, people can later have acute pain, swelling, inflammation, and paralysis {reflex sympathetic dystrophy} [Ramachandran, 2004].
People can have mental retardation, odd facial expressions, and happy personality {Angelman's syndrome} {Angelman syndrome} {happy puppet syndrome}.
Rare diseases {autism}| can involve abnormal development before 2.5 years old.
symptoms
Autistic children have stereotyped hand movements and facial grimaces. They withdraw from adults. They do not make friends with other children. They do not develop social responses or relationships. They have little eye contact. They do not adapt easily to new situations. They are obsessive. They strongly attach to favored objects. They cannot classify emotional responses. They cannot imagine others' mental states {mind blindness}. They have difficulty pretending.
biology
Autistic children typically have below-normal intelligence. Perhaps, bilateral hippocampal lesions, limbic-system and vestibular-nuclei abnormalities, brain injury, or chromosome-7 HOXA1-gene damage causes autism.
gender
Autism is more in boys than in girls.
Iodine lack or damaged thyroid gland can cause decreased thyroxin, fat appearance, and mental retardation {cretinism}|.
Enzyme deficiency causes inability to make phenylalanine into tyrosine and results in toxicity affecting gait and posture {phenylketonuria}| (PKU). Enzyme deficiency also causes inability to metabolize phenyl pyruvate, and excess blood phenyl pyruvate causes mental retardation. PKU affects one in 10,000 births. Diets low in phenylalanine can prevent PKU.
Brain injury {traumatic brain injury} (TBI) can be mild or concussion.
Blood can have low oxygen {anoxia}|. Difficult or premature births can cause brain damage, because no oxygen reaches brain.
Rotational or other mechanical force {concussion}| on brainstem disturbs vision, equilibrium, and consciousness.
incidence
In USA, 1.5 million people, mostly young, have concussions each year.
levels
Grade 1 concussion retains consciousness, symptoms last less than 15 minutes, and cognitive problems disappear within 24 hours. Grade 2 concussion has brief consciousness loss, and symptoms last longer than 15 minutes. Grade 3 concussion has consciousness loss and amnesia, and symptoms last long. Longer consciousness loss and longer amnesia {posttraumatic amnesia} (PTA) correlate with neurocognitive impairment severity.
brain
Concussion decreases blood flow, increases blood sugar, and changes cell-ion flows in inferior parietal, prefrontal, and cingulate cortex. Increased glutamate causes increased excitation. Changes can begin two to three days after injury and last more than one week. Brain is vulnerable to second injury.
symptoms
Common symptoms include uneven and dilated pupils, vomiting, headache, blurred vision, slurred speech, anxiety, and poor coordination and balance. Other symptoms are tiredness, poor concentration, irritability, noise, dizziness, clumsiness, eye problems, and headaches.
Early signs are vacant stare, fogginess, confusion, slowing, memory disturbance, consciousness loss (LOC), headache, dizziness, balance difficulties, and vomiting. Later somatic signs are headaches, fatigue, sleep disturbance, vision changes, ear ringing, and light/noise sensitivity. Affective signs are lowered frustration tolerance, irritability, more emotionality, depression, and anxiety. Cognitive signs are slow thinking, slow response, poor concentration, distractibility, learning difficulty, memory difficulty, and disorganization.
People can have retinal or brain damage or malformation and cannot see {blindness}| [Hull, 1990]. Peripheral retinal processing allows subconscious navigation.
restored sight
If blind people have restored sight, they can see but not well. Children with unused eyes see light spots after applying pressure to eyeball.
space
Senses can carry information about space and time. Vision impairment causes brain reconnections to other sense regions. Input and output shape plastic brain [Sur and Leamey, 2001] [Simpson, 1988] [Teuber et al., 1960] [Teuber, 1960] [Von Senden, 1960].
space: touch or sound
If touches or sounds substitute for vision, it seems that sense qualities vaguely become more like visual sense qualities [Bach-y-Rita, 1995] [Dobelle, 2000] [Normann et al., 1996] [Schmidt et al., 1996].
space: touch
Skin-vibrator arrays (Tactile Vision Substitution System) can represent camera images. People can learn images and place them in 3D space, so they use depth perception as well as form perception. Tongue electrode arrays can replace vestibular system [Bach-y-Rita and González, 2002].
space: sound
Sound pitches and timing can substitute for spatial dimensions [Meijer, 2002]. Blind people perceive objects by sound echoes. Blindfolded people can learn echo navigation rapidly.
People can be unaware that they cannot see {Anton's syndrome} {blindness denial}. They deny that they are blind [Ramachandran, 2004].
Eye lenses can have protofibrils, which can develop into plaques {cataract, eye}|.
Infection or tear-duct blockage can cause eyes not to receive enough tears {dry eye}|, primarily in older people.
In older people, vitreous humor can thicken and pull away from retina, and neurons can cause flashes in front of eye {flasher, vision}|. If new flashers appear, go to ophthalmologist. If you receive head blows, vitreous humor can rub retina, causing flashes {stars, vision}.
In older people, vitreous humor can thicken and make denser filaments, which can appear as floating objects in front of eye {floater, vision}|. If new floaters appear, go to ophthalmologist.
Optic nerve can have damage {glaucoma}|.
causes
High intraocular pressure (IOP), eye injury, inflammation, tumor, advanced cataract, advanced diabetes, and steroid drugs can damage optic nerve.
types
Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) affects three million in USA. Eye-drainage canals clog, and inner-eye pressure increases. It has no symptoms and is gradual. It has easy treatment.
Blocked drainage canals can cause acute angle-closure glaucoma {narrow-angle glaucoma}. When pupil enlarges too much or too quickly, outer iris edge bunches up over drainage canals. Iris cannot open wide. Symptoms include headaches, eye pain, nausea, colors around lights at night, and blurred vision. Surgery can remove small region at outer iris edge.
Normal-tension glaucoma (NTG) {low-tension glaucoma} {normal pressure glaucoma} has optic nerve damage with almost normal intraocular pressure from 12 mm Hg to 22 mm Hg.
Older people can have macula focal-area degeneration {age-related macular degeneration} (AMD) {macular degeneration}|. In first macular-degeneration stage {dry stage, macular degeneration}, tissues thin. In next stage {wet stage, macular degeneration}, blood vessels grow and hemorrhage or leak behind macula, forming scar tissue. Anti-oxidant vitamins and minerals slow dry form. Laser treatments and photodynamic therapy can seal leaking blood vessels.
People can not see one quarter of visual field {quadrantanopia} [Horton and Hoyt, 1991].
Sunlight on snow can cause temporary blindness, eye watering, and double vision {niphablepsia} {snow blindness}.
Eye can turn away from nose {walleye}|, or cornea can be white or opaque.
People can have agnosia for colors {color-blindness}| [Meadows, 1974] [Nordby, 1990] [Zeki, 1990].
Males can interchange long-wavelength and middle-wavelength cones {double color-blindness} {Nida-Rümelin inversion}.
Eye refraction can be correct {emmetropia}, neither near-sighted nor far-sighted.
Far-sightedness {hyperopia} {hypermetropia} {far-sightedness} {presbyopia} results if eye length is too short. Hyperopia usually develops soon after birth. One person in three is hyperopic.
Near-sightedness {myopia}| {near-sightedness} results if eye length is too long. Myopia usually develops in early teens. One person in five is myopic. Near-sightedness makes reds more prominent.
People can have reduced spontaneous movement {akinesia}.
Protofibrils can appear in motor neurons, and plaques can appear there later {amyotrophic lateral sclerosis}| (ALS) {Lou Gehrig's disease}. Mao Tse-tung, David Niven, Stephen Hawking, and Dmitri Shostakovich had it. Superoxide dismutase can have mutations. ALS starts in axons. It first affects fast-twitch and fast-fatigue muscle fibers, then fast-twitch and fatigue-resistant muscle fibers, and then slow-twitch muscle fibers.
Nerve damage can cause poor muscle coordination and unsteady posture, movements, eye movements, and speech {ataxia}.
People can have twisting or writhing movements {athetosis}.
Subthalamic-nucleus damage can cause ballistic movements {ballismus}.
People can be slow in making and controlling voluntary ballistic movements {bradykinesia}.
In dementia, sudden stimuli or strong efforts can cause facial contortions and tears {bulbar palsy}, without unhappiness.
People can have movement disorders {dyskinesia}|.
People can have increased movement {hyperkinesis}|.
People can have involuntary tremors in resting arms and legs, stiffness in movements, akinesia, and bradykinesia {Parkinsonism} {Parkinson's disease} {shaking palsy} {idiopathic paralysis agitans} {hypokinesia}. Posture, mood, and activity changes can have no pain, little sensation loss, and little consciousness loss. Eye movements can be small or slow. Untreated Parkinsonism leads to crouching and immobility.
cause
Metal poisoning, oxygen deficiency, strokes, infections, and drug overdoses can cause Parkinsonism. Substantia-nigra dopamine neurons degenerate. Dopaminergic-neuron degeneration causes slow movements. Parkinsonism involves alpha-synuclein, which makes amyloid plaques {Lewy body} in brain cells.
Basal-ganglia damage disrupts unconscious motor plans, and perceptions cannot guide actions. Because perceptions and motor actions are not conscious, consciousness cannot use other behaviors to compensate.
treatment
Dopamine and L-DOPA treat Parkinson's disease.
incidence
One to 1.5 million people in USA have Parkinson's disease.
factors: age
Parkinsonism is a late-middle or old-age degenerative disease.
factors: genetics
Parkinsonism is not hereditary.
drugs
Reserpine causes motionless, humped back, splayfooted posture, and coarse, whole body tremor, which resembles Parkinson's disease.
Antibodies can damage myelin and make weak muscles {multiple sclerosis}|. Patients can be unable to recognize objects by touch.
Motor neurons can have damage {muscular dystrophy}|.
Spinal-cord inflammation {myelitis} can cause muscle-function loss.
After posterior-parietal-lobe damage, people cannot connect seeing with reaching or pointing {optic ataxia}.
Brain damage, typically from rubella, Rh factor, jaundice, or head injury, can cause infants to have bad posture and little control over movement {palsy}| {cerebral palsy}.
Sensory nerve tracts can degenerate {spinal ataxia}.
Fifth cranial nerve can feel sharp pain or shock in jaw or cheek {trigeminal neuralgia} {tic douloureux}|. From 6 to 12 years, children can have restlessness and/or twitching, symptoms of tension from repressed needs or conflicts.
Patients with bilateral focal frontal-lobe lesions can use objects within reach though told not to do so {utilization behavior sign}, because they have no inhibition.
Muscles can have oscillations {tremor, muscle} {muscle tremor}|. Normally, damping by cerebellum inhibits agonist and antagonist contractions to eliminate oscillations and smooth movement.
People can not perform low and small movements {cerebellar action tremor}, only larger movements.
Gamma-efferent nerve-system overstimulation makes limbs tremble {intention tremor}.
Anterior-cingulate damage causes inability to speak, move, or be conscious {akinetic mutism}.
People can lose sense qualities and voluntary motion {catalepsy}|. Body stays in one position.
Muscles can become rigid in one position {catatonia}|.
Children can get polio {infantile paralysis}|.
People can have paralyzed limbs before amputation and stay paralyzed after {learned paralysis} [Ramachandran, 2004].
People can be conscious but unable to move or express reports {locked-in syndrome}| [Bauby, 1997] [Celesia, 1997] [Feldman, 1971].
Brain or peripheral-nerve damage can cause motor-function loss {paralysis}|. Hysteria can have paralysis. Paralysis does not affect emotions or consciousness.
People can be unable to move arms and legs {paraplegia}|.
Syphilis, encephalitis, brain damage, or cerebral arteriosclerosis can cause general paralysis and organic psychosis {paresis}.
Virus {poliovirus} can paralyze by destroying motor nerve cells {polio}| {poliomyelitis}.
Paralysis can alternate with muscle spasms {spastic paralysis}.
When deep-sea divers breathing air rise too quickly, nitrogen dissolved in blood expands to form painful bubbles {bends}|.
Deep-sea divers breathing air act drunk {nitrogen narcosis}| {rapture of the deep}. Nitrogen narcosis begins at 30 meters deep and prevents working below 60 meters. Oxygen and helium mixtures {heliox} or oxygen, helium, and nitrogen mixtures {trimix} replace air to prevent bends and allow working. Heliox distorts voices and conducts heat efficiently.
People can be unable to make purposeful skilled movements and to move in response to verbal commands {apraxia, muscle disease}, though they can comprehend words.
types
People can persevere in making distorted movements {ideomotor apraxia}, use previous movements in current movements, and show no difference between left and right limbs or meaningful and meaningless tasks.
People can have impaired motor-element selection and sequencing {ideational apraxia}, caused by problems in brain association areas that input to motor programs.
brain
Disconnecting Wernicke's area from motor centers causes apraxia. Language-hemisphere lesions impair action sequences. Animal brain lesions do not cause apraxia.
comparison
Aphasia and apraxia have no qualitative relation.
People with left-hemisphere supramarginal-gyrus damage can have no paralysis but cannot imitate imagined motions well {ideo-motor apraxia}. They can perform skills correctly if skills do not require imagination. They cannot judge if another's actions are intentional.
Dyskinesia {chorea}| can have too much dopamine in brain movement-control centers and cause quick muscle contractions. People can twist or writhe in athetosis. Huntington's chorea is hereditary. Syndenham's chorea is from rheumatic fever. Drugs, hormonal disorders, and blood vessel problems can cause chorea.
Dominantly inherited disorders {Huntington's chorea} {Huntington chorea} {Huntington's disease} can result from expanded glutamine repeats in HD proteins.
symptoms
At first, patients fidget, have spontaneous movements, and appear clumsy. Later, jerking and writhing affect face, tongue, and arms.
biology
A chromosome-4-tip autosomal dominant gene can cause Huntington's chorea. Cytosine-adenine-guanine nucleotides {CAG repeat, Huntington's} repeat in middle too many times, making too many glutamines. Proteins clump together {polyglutamine disease, Huntington's} to make protofibrils and later plaques. Cerebrum shrinks, ventricles enlarge, and midbrain caudate nucleus and putamen have damage. Cytosine-anything-guanine regions {CxG region, Huntington's} make DNA hairpins, so copies are longer.
After streptococcus infection, children 5 to 15 years old can have twisting chorea {St. Vitus' dance}| {Syndenham chorea}.
Corpus-callosum and prefrontal-region damage causes hand to move, though people do not will movement {alien hand syndrome}|. People say that their hand is doing things itself.
After corpus-callosum damage, hands undo each other's work {anarchic hand syndrome}. Hands seem to act in opposition.
4-Medicine-Disease-Kinds-Organ
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