Plants {plant} {land plant}| {higher plant} (Plantae) include green algae, liverworts, bryophyte mosses, hornworts, and tracheophyte vascular plants. Spore-bearing seedless vascular sporophytes are club mosses, ferns, and horsetails. Seed-plant spermatophytes are gymnosperms or angiosperms. Gymnosperms include cycads, ginkgoes, gnetae, conifers, and extinct seed ferns. Angiosperms are flowering plants and are monocots or dicots.
Plants do not include other plant-like things, such as thallophyte fungi and non-green algae.
evolution
Plants came from Charophyta green algae.
coordination
Plants have physical interactions between plant parts.
immune system
RNA molecules can have coding sequences {immune system, plant} {plant, immune system}, at hairpin tips, that cleave messenger RNA from genes or viruses, such as wheat and barley yellow dwarf virus.
waste
Waste gases, such as oxygen, diffuse out leaves. Solid wastes remain in leaves, which eventually drop off {plant, excretion} {excretion, plant}.
potassium
Plants need potassium in intracellular water.
Plant diseases can cause wilting and dying {blight}|.
Touching plants slowly changes membrane permeability, electrical charge, and metabolism rate {irritability, plant}.
Plants can grow by adding two existing things, in self-repeating patterns, so part numbers follow Fibonacci series {phyllotaxis}, as in pinecone spirals and sunflower center spirals.
Plants can use oxygen to make carbohydrates into ATP, while releasing carbon dioxide {respiration, plant}. Respiration requires gas diffusion to roots. Plant respiration rate is slower than photosynthesis rate.
Plants can become abnormally green {virescence}.
Plants {epiphyte, air plant}| can live on another plant but get food from air.
Plants {hydrophyte} can live in water.
Plants {mesophyte} can live in soil.
Plants {xerophyte} can live in desert.
Plants have hormones {hormone, plant} {plant hormone} for stimulating cell growth lengthwise. They have hormones for making new roots and flowers. They have hormones for starting cell division in cambium. They have hormones for inhibiting lateral buds and losing leaves.
In response to stimuli, plants make indoles {auxin} for plant growth.
Plants hormones {gibberellin} can elongate young shoots by cell division, leaf expansion, and flowering. Gibberellin does not affect mature plants. Fungi do not have gibberellin.
Plants make hormones {kinin} for cell division.
Plant hormones {phytachione} determine flowering, as day length affects pigments.
Non-vascular plants {non-vascular plants} include mosses (Bryophyta), liverworts (Marchantiophyta), and hornworts (Anthocerotophyta). Non-vascular plants can include green algae (Chlorophyta or Charophyta). Non-vascular plants do not include plant-like thallophytes such as non-green algae or fungi.
Lower plants {moss}| {bryophyte} can be multicellular and have protonema. Mosses reproduce sexually by generation alteration. Mosses include green moss. Club moss is not moss.
Mosses have green-filament bodies {protonema}| {protonemae}.
Protonemae can grow stems {rhizoid}|, with thin leaves at top and cellular projections for water absorption at bottom.
Mosses {beard moss} (Usnea) can trap water.
Mosses {Spanish moss} {tillandsia} can trap water.
Lower plants {wort}| can be liverworts {liverwort, plant} and hornworts {hornwort}. Worts are like simple mosses. Worts reproduce sexually by generation alteration. Main plant is gametophyte, and sporophyte depends on gametophyte. Quillworts are club mosses, not worts.
Worts can have yellow simple flowers in round clusters {St. John's wort} {hypericum} {rose-of-Sharon, flower} (Clusiaceae) (formerly Guttiferae).
Higher plants {vascular plant}| {tracheophyte} have xylem and phloem conductive tissue for conducting water.
types
Vascular plants include sporophyte plants that make spores and spermatophyte plants that make seeds.
Sporophytes are club mosses (Lycopodiophyta), whisk ferns (Psilotophyta), and horsetails and ferns (Pteridophyta). Club mosses include spike mosses and quillworts.
Spermatophytes are gymnosperms or angiosperms. Gymnosperms include cycads, gnetae, ginkgoes, conifers, and extinct seed ferns. Angiosperms are flowering plants (Magnoliophyta) and include monocots and dicots.
non-vascular plants
Vascular plants do not include non-vascular plants, such as mosses (Bryophyta), liverworts (Marchantiophyta), and hornworts (Anthocerotophyta). Vascular plants do not include green algae (Chlorophyta or Charophyta). Vascular plants do not include plant-like thallophytes, such as non-green algae or fungi.
parts
Vascular plants have roots in soil or another substrate, leaves for photosynthesis and chemical activities, and stems to connect roots to leaves.
reproduction
Main plant is sporophyte, and gametophyte is small plant or is in sporophyte.
In dark and light conditions, plants can change leaf and flower positions {sleep movement}.
Vascular plants can be spore-bearing seedless plants {sporophyte}, such as club mosses, ferns, and horsetails.
Vascular seed plants {embryophyte} {spermatophyte, plant} are gymnosperms or angiosperms. Gymnosperms include cycads, ginkgoes, gnetae, conifers, and extinct seed ferns. Angiosperms are flowering plants and are monocots or dicots.
Water and nutrients flow both up and down {circulation, plant} in xylem and phloem.
Water-molecule attractions pull water from root through stem to leaf {cohesion theory}.
Leaf-stomata water evaporation {transpiration}| pulls water up from roots. Transpiration depends on osmosis. Transpiration causes forests to be cool and humid.
Phloem fluid goes from leaves to stems to roots {translocation, plant}. Low temperature, low oxygen, or poison can block translocation.
Xylem and phloem fluid {plant sap} {sap}| contains latex, which aids circulation.
Plant sap contains organic molecules {latex}| that aid circulation. Rubber, chicle, and opium are latexes.
Salts and water absorbed by roots create water pressure {root pressure} that pushes water from roots through stem to leaves.
Root cells actively transport minerals. Root cells absorb water by osmosis, to dilute minerals pumped into root cells. Water absorption causes pressure {turgor pressure} on cell walls. Turgor pressure provides cell support and shapes non-woody plants.
Too-low cell water makes low turgidity, and cells can burst {plasmolysis}.
Plant tissues {plant tissue} include conductive tissue, epidermis, fundamental tissue, and meristem.
Plant tissue {conductive tissue} can be xylem or phloem.
Conductive plant tissue {xylem}| can conduct water and salts.
Long thin xylem cells {tracheid} join end to end to make long open cellulose tubes, which can thicken by lignin secretion.
Conductive plant tissue {phloem}| can conduct organic nutrients.
Phloem cells join end-to-end using perforated plates, making tubes {sieve tube} outside cambium.
Cells {companion cell} near sieve tubes regulate sieve tubes.
In leaf and flower soft parts, stem pith, and root cortex, plant tissue {fundamental plant tissue} can produce and store food.
Fundamental tissue {chlorenchyma} can have cells with chloroplasts and large vacuoles.
Fundamental tissue {collenchyma} can have cells, under epidermis, with thick walls at corners for support.
Fundamental tissue {sclerenchyma} can have cells, under epidermis, with thick walls for support.
Plant tissue {meristem}| can have apical meristem and cambium.
Meristem {apical meristem} can be at root and stem tips.
Meristem {cambium, plant tissue}| can be in root and stem layers.
Plant tissue {protective tissue} can have cells with thick cell walls.
Protective tissue {epidermis, plant tissue} can be on upper and lower leaf surfaces.
Protective tissue {cork, plant} can be in stems and roots.
Epidermis secretes waxy substances {cutin}| that reduce water loss.
Cork secretes chemicals {suberin}, which prevent water from entering cells and cause cells to die, leaving cell walls to provide structure.
Plants have budding leaves {shoot}|.
New plants {sprout}| leave germinating seeds.
Cut grasses {straw}| can dry.
Vascular plant parts {leaf}| can originate from stems at buds. Dicot leaves have petiole and blade with veins. Monocot leaves have central veins.
Leaves change color in autumn, as chlorophyll decomposes and cell sap makes red and purple pigments {anthocyanin, leaf}. Carotenoids make leaves yellow and orange.
Leaves originate from stems at plant structures {bud}|. Buds can be at stem ends {terminal bud} or on stem sides {lateral bud}.
Between upper and lower epidermis, leaf middle layers {mesophyll} have chloroplasts.
Layers near upper epidermis can have special cells {palisade cell, leaf}.
Dicot flower bunches have small flower stalks {pedicel}.
For gas diffusion, leaf openings {stomata}| alter surrounding-cell turgor pressure, to open by day and close at night.
Dicot leaves have stalks {petiole} and blades.
Dicot leaves have flat parts {blade}|, with forked vascular bundles {vein, leaf}.
Leaves fall after cell layers {abscission layer} cover petiole bottoms.
After abscission layers cover petiole bottoms, cork {scar}| covers layers.
Vascular plant parts {root, plant}| can anchor plants to substrates, hold plants upright, absorb water and minerals, and store food. Roots have caps, elongation zones, root hairs, and mature root near stem.
Tulips, onions, and garlic have roots {bulb}.
Roots have growing points {cap, root} at tips.
Roots have regions {elongation zone} {zone of elongation} in which cells lengthen by absorbing water.
Roots have mature cells with hairs {root hair}|, for water and mineral absorption.
Roots have regions {maturation zone} {zone of maturation} of mature cells with root hairs, for water and mineral absorption.
Root tissue layers are outer, middle {cortex, plant}, and inner {endodermis} {cambium, root}. Cortex is thickest.
In old root parts, regions {pericycle} can develop into new side roots or into new xylem and phloem.
Root centers {stele, root} have phloem, xylem, pericycle, and cambium.
Plants can have roots {adventitious root}| that grow from stem or leaves.
Plants can have many similar-size roots {diffuse root} or one large main root {taproot}|.
Vascular plant parts {stem, plant}| can connect roots to leaves. Dicots have three stem layers: central pith, vascular-bundle ring, and outer cortex. Stem pith stores food. Stem vascular bundles have cambium to heal plant wounds. Stem cortex has dead-cell outer layer and live-cell inner layer. Monocots have epidermis, stomata, vascular bundles throughout stem, no pith, and surface cortex cells with thick cell-wall layers.
Plants can have bark swellings {lenticel}, which allow air diffusion.
Stems have growing points {node, stem} for flowers and leaves.
Central soft stem parts {pith}| have fundamental plant tissue.
Stems can have woody sharp points {thorn}|.
Underground stems can have bulb-like regions {corm}.
Ferns and grasses have underground stems {rhizome}|.
Plants can have long horizontal ground stems {stolon}.
Some rhizomes {tuber, root}| store starch.
Plants {herbaceous plant} {herb, stem}| can have soft, green, thin stems.
Herbaceous plants {annual}| can live one season, from early spring to late autumn.
Herbaceous plants {biennial}| can live between twelve and twenty-four months.
Plants {woody plant} can have tough, thick, hard stem. Stem is hard because it has lignin.
Woody plants {perennial} can live longer than one year.
Rare plants {monocarpic plant} flower only once and live from 2 to 100 years.
Some perennial plants {shrub}| have many similar woody stems.
Some perennial plants {tree, stem}| have one main woody stem.
In perennials, stem xylem and phloem grow each summer and stop growing in winter, so years leave distinct rings {annual ring}| underneath cortex.
Outer xylem layers {sapwood}| conduct sap.
Inner xylem layers {heartwood}| are for strength.
Cotton and flax have balls {boll}| that hold seeds.
Cereals have outer husks {chaff}|, removed before eating.
Corn has cylinders {cob}|, with outside seeds.
Pumpkin, squash, and cucumber have fruits with hard coverings {gourd}|.
shrub {box shrub}.
brier {bramble, brier}|.
Rose bushes and greenbrier {brier}| have thorns on branches.
Tight small-tree and shrub groups {maquis} can be on Mediterranean-Sea north side.
Grape and cucumber vine twining plant stems have curling pieces {tendril}| that hold base objects.
Small trees and/or shrubs can grow close together {thicket}|.
Plants {tumbleweed}| with many intertwined branches can break at ground level and then roll with wind.
Plants {vine}| can have pliable stems that twine around, climb, or run along surfaces.
tree branch {bough}|.
Small trees and/or shrubs can grow close together {copse}| {coppice}.
dicot wood {hardwood}|.
Bacteria or fungi can make tree tissue lose structure {rot}|.
young tree {sapling}|.
sprouted tree {seedling}|.
shoot or twig {sprig}|.
Tree parts fall into ocean and return to shore bleached and worn {driftwood}|.
branch bundle {fagot, branch}| {faggot}.
Dead wood can absorb mineral water and harden into stone {petrified wood}|.
Spruce, aspen, or pine wood {pulpwood}| can make paper.
Sporophytes {club moss}| can have spaced, erect rhizome stems, roots, and leaves but have no cambium. Club mosses include quillworts {quillwort}. Sporangia at stem tips are specialized leaves.
Sporophytes {horsetail}| can have spaced, erect rhizome stems with branches, branching roots, and small leaf whorls. Sporangia are at main stem tips. Horsetails are bushy with hard cell walls, because they contain silica.
Primitive sporophytes {psilopsida} can have spaced, erect rhizome stems, but not roots or leaves.
Lowest pteropsida {fern}| make no seeds or flowers. Ferns make haploid spores at specialized-leave bottoms. Spores drop to ground and grow into gametophytes, which make eggs that cross-pollinate to form new plants. Regular ferns have perennially erect stems, rhizomes with roots, and compound leaves in buds. Ferns have no xylem.
Ferns can get food and moisture from air {epiphyte, fern} {aerophyte} {airplant} (Tillandsia).
Ferns {asparagus fern} can reproduce using spores and have fronds.
Ferns {bracken} {brake, plant} came from Southeast Asia.
Ferns can look like green antlers {platycerium} {staghorn fern} {elkhorn fern} {moosehorn fern}.
Highest vascular-plant phylum {pteropsida} contains ferns and seed plants. Seed plants are conifers and flowering plants.
Gymnosperms and angiosperms {seed plant} {spermatophyte, seeds} make seeds.
Plants {bed plant} can be ground cover.
Seeds can sprout soon after planting {domesticated plant}|, but wild-plant seeds sprout over longer periods. Domesticated plants make no seeds, self-reproduce, or reproduce near each other, to preserve mutations. Wild plants makes seeds and spread out. Domesticated plants have mutations specific to harvesting. Domesticated peas mutate the pea-pod-popping gene to keep peas in pods. Domesticated wheat mutates the wheat-stalk-breaking gene to keep wheat on stalks.
Plants {legume}| {pulse, legume} can include alfalfa and white, red, crimson, and alsike clovers.
Legumes include bitter vetch in Mesopotamia, peas in Mesopotamia, chickpeas in Mesopotamia, cowpeas in Sahel, groundnuts in Sahel, peanuts in Andes and Amazon, lentils in Mesopotamia, lima beans in Andes, beans in Mesoamerica and Andes and Amazon, tepary beans in Mesoamerica, scarlet runner beans in Mesoamerica, soybeans in China, adzuki beans in China, mung beans in China, and hyacinth beans in India.
Legumes include black and green gram in India.
bacteria
Rhizobium bacteria are symbiotic with legumes and convert atmospheric nitrogen gas to nitrates and nitrites.
Seed plants {tree, plant} can include angiosperms and conifers.
Reeds, papyrus, sedge, lotus, and water hyacinth {water plant} grow in water.
Middle pteropsida {gymnosperm}| are seed plants, have no flowers, have no xylem, and have no woody fibers {softwood}. Gymnosperms use naked seeds, sometimes in cones. Gymnosperm classes include cycads, ginkgoes, gnetales, conifers, and extinct seed ferns.
Gymnosperms {cycad} (Cycas) (Cycadophyta) can be small plants {sago palm}, have short trunks with feathery leaves out tops, and make cones.
Gymnosperms {gingko} {maiden hair tree} (Gingkophyta) can be from China, have fan-like leaves on short twigs, and have fruits with bad odors and edible kernels.
Gymnosperms {gnetophyte} (Gnetophyta) {gnetae} {gnetales} include mormon tea.
Gymnosperms {conifer}| (Coniferophyta) (Pinophyta) can have seeds in cones, which have two types. Conifers include pine, cedar, spruce, fir, and redwood.
Trees {arborvitae} can have small cones, have both sexes on same tree, and be moist, cool, and evergreen: American, giant cedar or Western red cedar or shinglewood, Oriental, and Sawara-cypress. Incense cedar relates to cypress and Sawara-cypress. Northern white cedar is eastern arborvitae.
Trees {aspidistra} can be evergreen, have perennial large leaves, and live in Asia.
Trees {bald cypress} can be in south United States swamps, be tall, have root "knees" {knee, tree}, have small cones, and have needles that fall in autumn.
Trees {cedar} can have two kinds. Coast cedar, Atlantic cedar, or southern white cedar is small to big, has small cones, is evergreen, and lives in swamps and wet areas. Western cedar is on both coasts, likes wet ground, has catkins, has red-brown small cones, has scale-like blue-green leaves, grows slowly, and has twigs that droop from branches. Cedars include Atlantic white cedar or swamp cedar, Port Orford white cedar or Oregon cedar or Lawson cypress, and Alaska yellow cedar or Alaska cypress or yellow cypress.
Trees {cypress} can grow in west and southwest USA, have small red-brown cones, like moist areas, grow in stands, and have both sexes on same tree: Monterey cypress and Arizona cypress.
Trees {fir} can be aromatic, have short needles, be evergreen, live in Pacific Northwest, and have cones upright on branches. Firs include Alpine fir, noble fir, grand fir or yellow fir, gray fir, balsam or Canada balsam or Eastern fir, silver fir, red fir, Nordmann fir, and white fir or white balsam. Douglas firs are tall.
Trees {heath, tree} can be evergreen, have orange branches and leathery dark green leaves, and have orange-red small drupes in clusters. Pacific madrone or madrona lives on USA west coast and relates to mountain laurel, rhododendron, azalea, and blueberry.
Trees {hemlock} {spruce} {water hemlock} can have short needles, be dark green, have tiny cones, grow fast, be evergreen, and have cones that hang down. Hemlocks include Eastern hemlock or Canadian hemlock, Western hemlock or Pacific hemlock, black hemlock or Mountain hemlock, and Carolina hemlock. Spruces include Engelmann spruce or mountain spruce, Oriental spruce, weeping spruce, red spruce or Eastern spruce, black spruce or bog spruce, Norway spruce, Colorado spruce or blue spruce, white spruce, coast spruce or sitka spruce or yellow spruce, and Atlas cedar.
Trees {hornbeam} can have hop-like fruit clusters, have catkins, be deciduous, and live in east USA: Eastern hop hornbeam and American hop hornbeam.
Trees {ironwood} {blue beech} {American hornbeam} (Carpinus) can have blue and gray smooth bark, be deciduous, have catkins, and live in east USA.
Trees {juniper} can be aromatic, have blue fleshy cones, have short needles, be evergreen, and have needles gray above and green below. Junipers include common juniper, Rocky Mountain juniper, Utah juniper, alligator juniper, creeping juniper, savin, Sierra juniper or western juniper, Lawson-cypress, and Eastern red cedar or red juniper.
Trees {larch} {tamarack} can shed leaves in autumn, have needles in clumps on short side twigs, have small cones, have short needles, and live in north USA swamps: European larch, Western larch, and American larch or tamarack or Eastern larch or black larch.
Trees {pine, tree} can have bundles of two to five long or short needles, have big cones, be evergreen, and have catkins. Pines include bristlecone pine, digger pine, jack pine, limber pine, loblolly pine, lodgepole pine, longleaf pine, mountain pine, pinyon pine, pond pine, slash pine, sugar pine, table-mountain pine, whitebark pine, and yellow pine or shortleaf pine. Other pines are Austrian pine or black pine, Coulter pine, Eastern white pine, Himalayan pine, Jeffrey pine, red pine or Norway pine, Ponderosa pine, Scotch pine, Southern pine or pitch pine, Swiss stone pine, Torrey pine, Virginia pine, and Western white pine. Pinyon pines {pi-on pine} have edible seeds {pine nut, pine} {Indian nut}. Bristlecone pines can live 4000 years.
Trees {redwood} {sequoia} can be evergreen with small to medium cones and grow to 300 feet: coast redwoods and Sequoias or Big Trees.
Trees {yew, tree} can have medium height, be evergreen, have little red drupes, be dark green, and have sexes on different trees: Pacific yew or Western yew, European yew, English yew, Japanese yew, torreya, podocarpus, and American yew or ground hemlock shrub.
Flowering plants (Magnoliophyta) {flowering plant} {angiosperm}| have xylem, flowers with pistils, and fruits with enclosed seeds. Flowering plants are the highest pteropsida.
Angiosperms can lose leaves each fall {deciduous}|.
Day length {photoperiodism} affects flowering. Flowers can appear in winter, in summer, or all year. Photoperiodism can affect tubers and other plant characteristics.
If VRN1 gene is present, 40-degree temperatures for several weeks trigger flowering {vernalization}.
Flowers {flower}| are modified stems. Flowers have receptacle, calyx, sepals, petals, stamen, and pistil.
flower types
Flowers can have stamen, pistils, petals, and sepals {complete flower} or lack something {incomplete flower}.
stamen and pistil types
Flowers can have functional stamen and pistil {perfect flower}, functioning pistil only {pistillate flower}, or functional stamen only {stamenate flower}.
imperfect flowers
Date palm, willow, and poplar have imperfect flowers. Plants can have separate staminate and pistillate plants {dioecious plant}, as in holly trees and pistachio trees. Plants {monoecious plant} can have separate male and female flowers on same plant, as in corn and pecan trees. Plants can have only male flowers at growing-season beginning but later have male and female flowers, as in cucumbers and squash.
temperature
Some flowers have cone-shaped top-surface cells that focus sunlight onto lower-cell petal pigments, making flowers warmer.
Plants can have one flower {solitary flower} per stem.
floret
Plants can have flower clusters {floret} on stems in racemose or cyme form {inflorescence}.
racemose
Florets can start from bottom and go up in spikes, racemes, corymbs, umbels, or heads {racemose inflorescence}. Many stemless florets can attach to long flower stems or peduncles {spike inflorescence}, as in gladiolus. Florets can be on small stems attached to peduncles {raceme inflorescence}, as in snapdragon. Florets can have random stalks and pedicels along peduncles {corymb inflorescence}, so florets make flat round tops, as in yarrow. Corymbs can have pedicels that all arise from one peduncle point {umbel inflorescence}, as in dill. Many stemless florets can arrange as in daisies {head inflorescence} {composite inflorescence}.
cyme
Top florets can open first and bloom downward along peduncles {cyme inflorescence}. Florets can be opposite along peduncles {dischasium cyme inflorescence}, as in baby's breath. Lower florets can be on the same peduncle side {helicoid cyme inflorescence}, as in freesia and statice. Florets can alternate along peduncles {scorpioid cyme inflorescence}, as in tomato and potato.
Flowers can attach to stems at widened spots {receptacle}.
Flowers have sepal concentric circles {calyx}|.
Flowers have calyx of outside leaflets {sepal}|.
Flowers have flowery leaves {petal}|.
Flowers have anthers on structures {stamen}|.
Flowers can have male sex organs {anther}| {antheridia} to make male sex cells, which make pollen sacs on stamens.
Anther sacs {microsporangia} develop male sex cells into microspores.
Microsporangia develop male sex cells into four spores {microspore}. Two microspores are tube nuclei. Two microspores are generative nuclei. One tube nucleus and one generative nucleus make one pollen grain, so process makes two pollen grains.
One tube nucleus and one generative nucleus make one grain {pollen grain} {pollen}|. Pollen grains leave stamens to try to land on stigmas.
Flowers have center structures {pistil, flower}|. Pistils have ovaries, styles, and stigmas.
Pistils have top parts {stigma, flower}|.
Pistils have middle parts {style, flower}.
Pistils have egg-making organs {carpel, flower}|, in which ovules develop.
Carpels have female sex cells {ovule}. Ovules develop to make eight nuclei, of which one becomes egg nucleus, two become polar nuclei, three are generative nuclei, and two form tube nuclei.
Ovules develop to make sacs {megasporangium}, with female spores {megaspore}.
Flowers have female sex organs {archegonia}.
Spermatophytes produce male microspores and female megaspores. Male pollen must transfer from anther to stigma, by wind {wind-pollinated flower} or by insect, animal, or bird pollinators {pollinator-pollinated flower}. Wind-pollinated flowers do not have fancy flowers or nectar. Spermatophytes transport pollen down pollen tubes to megaspores and unite gametes {pollination}|, to make fertilized embryos. Seeds have one embryo surrounded by endosperm, surrounded by epidermis. Seeds are transportable units.
Female ovules develop to make eight nuclei, of which two {tube nuclei} form tubes. After pollen grains land on stigmas, ovule and pollen tube nuclei form tubes down through styles to ovules.
Female ovules develop to make eight nuclei, of which three {generative nucleus} participate in fertilization. One generative nucleus divides. Second generative nucleus enters egg nucleus. Female-ovule polar nuclei and third generative nucleus fuse to make endosperm nucleus. Ovule and pollen generative nuclei make embryo {double fertilization}.
Female ovules develop to make eight nuclei, of which two {polar nucleus} become pole markers. Polar nuclei and third generative nucleus fuse to make endosperm nucleus.
Pollination makes fertilized gametes {embryo, plant}.
Ovule polar nuclei and third generative nucleus combine to make a nucleus {endosperm nucleus}.
Seeds have nutrient layers {endosperm} that surround embryos and have epidermis coverings. Endosperm nucleus makes endosperm.
After double fertilization, flowers fall off. Ovules thicken walls to form seeds. Ovaries enlarge to make new organs {fruit}|.
Fruits are mature-ovule seeds and ovary walls {pericarp}. Ovary walls can be fleshy, as in apple, or dry and hard, as in maple. Seeds can be in ovary, as in apples, peaches, oranges, squash, and cucumbers. Seeds can be on surface, as in corn and strawberry. Fleshy fruits can have one or more seeds and skin, as tomato, cranberry, banana, and grape. Compound inferior ovaries can have many seeds in thick flesh {pome}, as in pear and apple.
botanical fruit
Tomato, squash, cucumber, and eggplant {botanical fruit} develop from flowers and so are not like vegetables.
dehiscent
Some fruits do not split open to release seed {indehiscent} and are typically samaras. Dry fruits can have one seed that splits open {dehiscent}, as in walnut.
Sepals, petals, or receptacles can be fruit parts {accessory fruit}, as in apple. Accessory fruits {aggregate-accessory fruit} can have edible enlarged receptacles, as in strawberry and blackberry.
Fruits {aggregate fruit} can have simple flowers, with one corolla, one calyx, one stem, and many ovaries. Aggregate fruits can be from flowers with several pistils, as in raspberry and blackberry.
Fleshy fruits {berry, fruit}| can have pulpy walls.
Fruits {drupe}| can have stones, as in peach and apricot. One-seed fleshy fruits can have fleshy outer pericarp and bony inner pericarp {endocarp}.
Seeds can join to stalks {hilum}.
Fruit clusters can unite {multiple fruit}, as in pineapple. Multiple fruits have separate and independent flower clusters, with calyx and corolla, as in pineapple, fig, and beet.
Dry fruits {nut}| have shells.
Seeds {samara}| can have wings, as in ash, elm, and maple.
Fruits {simple fruit} can be from flowers with one pistil, such as cherry, date, and palm. Dry simple fruits have paper, leather, or hard ovary walls. Pods can split into two sides {valve, pod} with seeds attached to one edge, as in peanut, pea, bean, and other legumes. Dry thin-walled fruits or pods {capsule, fruit} can have more than one seed and several parts separated by grooved lines {carpel, fruit}, as in poppy.
Mature fertilized ovules {seed, plant}| have immature plants {embryo, seed}; protein, carbohydrate, or fat food supply {endosperm layer}, except in orchid; and soft inner linings {micropyle} or hard outer coverings {seed coat} to prevent water from entering seeds early. Seeds can remain dormant, if they have thick coats, low water, and starches for food.
Angiosperms {monocot}| {monocotyledon} can have one embryo seed leaf, one straight leaf vein, flower parts in threes, and xylem throughout.
Angiosperms {dicot}| {dicotyledon} can have two embryo seed leaves, branching leaf veins, flower parts in fours or fives, and xylem in rings or stem center.
Warmth, moisture, and oxygen start seed growth {germination}|.
First, a filament {suspensor} of cells grows. At suspensor end, one cell divides to make embryo, as a round cell mass. Embryo then makes cotyledon.
Embryos make primary seed leaves {cotyledon}|, which have a central axis. Angiosperms are monocotyledons or dicotyledons. Seed leaves enclose embryo but are not like mature leaves.
Axis above seed leaves {epicotyl} becomes stem and leaves.
Axes {hypocotyl} can be below seed leaves, be beside radicle, and have immature stems.
Immature leaves {plumule} can be beside hypocotyl.
After seeds absorb water, axis {radicle} below hypocotyl grows and emerges from seed to make primary root. Root grows down, pulling axis and cotyledon out of seed coat.
Plants {plant types} can be flowers, herbs, grasses, trees, weeds, and crops.
Flowers have different colors and shapes {flower kinds}.
perennial herb or small shrub {acanthus} {bear's breeches}.
Perennial {petunia} smell can depend on methylbenzoate.
yellow or purple flowers, creeping, mat-forming, succulent {mesembryanthemum} {ice plant} (Carpobrotus edulis).
creeping, mat-forming, succulent {stone plant}.
red or green flowers, tall {hypochondriacus} {cat's tail} {amaranthus}.
red flowers, tall {cockscomb}.
large various color flowers, perennial {amaryllis} {hippeastrum} (Amaryllidaceae).
white flowers in long clusters {poison ivy} {cashew, flower}.
green-white flowers {poison oak}.
green flowers with unique shape {poison sumac}.
carrots and celeries {carrot family} {celery family} (formerly Umbelliferae).
white flowers in round clusters {queen anne's lace} {wild carrot}.
{asclepiad}.
purple flowers {digitalis, plant} {foxglove}.
{frangipani}.
pink or blue-purple or red or pink flowers in round clusters, digitalis-like chemical {milkweed}. Butterflies that eat it become poisonous, too.
poisonous, narrow evergreen leaves, sweet smell, white or pink or red flowers in clusters, East Indies {oleander} {dogbane}.
blue-purple flowers, simple opposite leaves, perennial, evergreen {periwinkle}.
blue-purple flowers {vinca} {bigleaf periwinkle}.
green flowers with unique shape {arum} {aroid}.
white or red or pink heart shape flowers, waxy {anthurium}.
green or brown flowers with unique shape {jack in the pulpit} (Arisaema triphyllum).
Green flowers contain oxalate crystals and histamine releasers {philodendron}.
brown flowers with unique shape {skunk cabbage}.
white flowers {zantedeschia}.
blue-purple flowers, shrub {ivy} {hedera}.
green or white flowers in round clusters {ginseng, flower}.
shrubs with dense tufts {thrift}.
white or blue-purple flowers with rays, composite {aster}.
white or blue-purple flowers with rays {achillea}.
yellow flowers with rays {black-eyed susan} {thunbergia}.
white or blue-purple flowers with rays {callistephus} {annual aster}.
milky sap, alternate or basal leaves, strap-shape {ligulate} flowers with no bracts {involucre} surrounding flower clusters {volucre} {chicory, flower}.
white, yellow, lavender, purple, bronze and light pink flowers {chrysanthemum}.
purple flowers {cockleburr}.
Eurasia, perennial, herb {coltsfoot} (Tussilago farfara).
small, annual {centaurea} {cornflower} {centaury}.
yellow {cosmos} {cosmea}.
tuberous root, various color flowers with rays {dahlia}.
Asters {figwort} (Scrophularia) (Scrophulariaceae) can have square stems, opposite leaves, and open flowers with two lips. Figworts {mullein} {aaron's rod} can be in Europe and Asia, have coumarin and rotenone, and have yellow flowers in long clusters.
yellow flowers in long clusters {goldenrod} {solidago}.
chrysanthemum {mum}.
yellow flowers with rays {ragwort} {golden ragwort}.
red or orange flowers, thistle-like, annual, Asia and Africa {safflower} (Carthamus tinctorius).
shrubs {sagebrush} (Artemisia).
blue-purple or yellow flowers with unique shape {thistle}.
large various color flowers {zinnia}.
white flowers {daisy} {marguerite} {white daisy} (formerly Compositae).
herbs and small shrubs {arctotis} {African daisy}.
white flowers {bellis} {double daisy}.
yellow flowers with rays {dandelion} (Taraxacum).
small white flowers, perennial {leontopodium} {eidelweiss}.
blue flowers {felicia} {blue marguerite}.
large white flowers {magnolia, flower}.
blue flowers {senecio} (Jacobaea) {stinking willie}.
yellow flowers {marigold} {tagetes}.
yellow-orange flowers {calerdula} {pot marigold}.
yellow-orange flowers {caltha} {marsh marigold} {cowslip, caltha}.
yellow flowers {sunflower, plant} {helianthus}.
white flowers in round clusters {yarrow} {milfoil}.
Asters {lamial} can include lavender, lilac, olive, jasmine, ash trees, teak, snapdragon, psyllium, mint, basil, and rosemary.
Lamials {mimulus} {muskflower} {monkey flower} (Mimulus moschatus) (Phrymaceae) can have yellow or red flowers.
pink flowers {mint, plant} {beebalm} {peppermint} {spearmint} (formerly Labiatae).
red or pink or white flowers in round clusters {bee-balm} (Melissa officinalis) (Monarda didyma).
blue flowers in bugle shapes {ajuga} {bugle, flower}.
blue-purple flowers {hyssop}.
purple flowers {lavandula} {lavender, plant}.
blue flowers {molucella} {bells of Ireland} {shell flower}.
purple flowers {prunella, plant}.
shrub, deciduous, dioecious {tacamahac} {balm of Gilead} (Populus balsamifeya).
red or pink flowers in round clusters or unique shapes {paintbrush}.
Large white or yellow flower {antirrhinum} {snapdragon} smell depends on methylbenzoate.
various color flowers {linaria} {toadflax} {baby snapdragon}.
deciduous, Old World, shrubs or small trees {olive, plant}.
yellow flowers {forsythia} {golden bell}.
small white flowers, sweet smell {jasminium} {jasmine}.
blue flowers, deciduous, Old World, shrubs or small trees {syringa, lilac} {lilac}.
purple flowers {philadelphus} {mock orange} {syringa, philadelphus} {common lilac} (Syringa vulgaris).
pink, purple, red, rose, or white flowers {impatiens} {balsam}.
various color flowers, glossy leaves {begonia}.
small yellow flowers, red berries, shrubs {berberis} {barberry}.
white flowers {mayapple}. Sap has emetic {ipecac} (Podophyllum peltatum).
blue flowers {forget-me-not} {myosotis} {borage}.
White to blue tiny flowers in long curved sprays, sweet smell {heliotropium} {heliotrope, plant}.
cabbages {cabbage family} (formerly Cruciferae).
yellow flowers {alyssum} {sweet alyssum} {yellow alyssum}.
annual to perennial, woody, herbs {arabis} {rock cress}.
yellow flowers {mustard plant}.
cream white flowers {matthiola} {stock, plant}.
yellow flowers {cheiranthus} {wallflower, plant}.
large red or yellow or bronze flowers in slipper or pouch shapes {calceolaria} {pouch} {pocketbook flower} {slipper flower}.
blue flowers in long clusters {bellflower}.
blue-purple flowers {bluebell} {endymion}.
violet or dark blue flowers {rampion}.
small pink flowers {pink} (Caryophyllaceae).
small white flowers {baby's breath} (Gypsophila).
small flowers {dianthus} {sweet William}.
limoniums {leadwort} {plumbago} (Plumbaginaceae).
blue flower {limonium} {statice} {sea lavender} {marsh rosemary}.
blue or purple flowers {morning glory} {convolvulus} {ipomoea}.
white or pink flowers {bindweed}.
sweet potato {sweet potato, flower}.
carnivorous, high humidity {Venus' fly trap}.
heath {heath, flower}.
white and other color flowers in round clusters {azalea}.
white simple flowers, shrubs {cranberry, flower}.
pink or white flowers {heather} {erica} {ling}.
various color flowers in round clusters {rhododendron} {azalea rhododendron}.
perennial, shrubs {teaberry}.
shrubs {vaccinium} {cranberry, shrub} {blueberry, shrub} {bilberry} {huckleberry, shrub} {whortleberry} {cowberry} {mountain cranberry}.
shrubs {coca}.
white or red flowers {carnation} (Euphorbia).
shrubs {castor oil plant}.
shrubs {manioc, plant} (Manihot esculenta).
large red or white flowers {euphorbia} {poinsettia}.
large green thick leaves {rubber plant, spurge}.
brown flowers {spurge}.
blue-purple flowers {pea, flower}.
Peas, beans, and legumes {pulse, plant} have small white or yellow flowers.
small white or yellow flowers {acacia} {mimosa, plant}.
Pulse herb has gum tragacanth {astragalus, herb} {milk vetch} (Astragalus gummifer).
yellow flowers {cytisus} {broom, cytisus}.
yellow flowers {genista} {broom, genista}.
Spiny European shrubs {furze} {whin} {gorse} (Ulex) have sweet-smelling yellow flowers and black pods.
white flowers {haricot, bean}.
Female Jumping Bean moths (Laspeyresia saltitans) lay eggs inside jumping-bean {jumping bean} ovary capsules.
red or pink flowers in long clusters {kudzu}.
blue-purple flowers {lupin} {lupine}.
various color flowers {sweet pea} (Lathyrus odoratus).
white or pink or blue-purple flowers {vetch}.
blue flowers in clusters {wisteria}.
blue-purple flowers with unique shape {gentiana} {gentian} {fringed gentian} {closed gentian} {bottle gentian}.
blue-purple or red or pink simple flowers {geranium} {cranesbill} {pelargonium} (Geraniaceae).
purple flowers {saintpaulia} {African violet}.
African-violet related {gloxinia}.
shrubs {currant, flower} (Grossulariaceae).
Plants {gunnera} {giant rhubarb} can have four or five large round indented leaves on tall stalks, with small red flowers. They date from 93,000,000 years ago in Gondwana. They are symbiotic with Nostoc cyanobacteria.
yellow flowers with unique shape, shrubs {witch hazel} {hamamelis}.
white flowers in round clusters {hydrangea}.
{waterleaf family}.
blue-purple flowers with unique shape {iris, plant}.
short, hairy, perennial, blue-violet flowers {crocus}.
various color flowers {gladiolus, flower}.
red or pink or white flowers in round cluster {laurel, flower}.
beans (Caesalpiniaceae) (Fabaceae) (Mimosaceae) (Papilionaceae) {bean family}.
white or yellow or red-orange flowers {lilium} {lily} {wood lily} {yellow lily} {Canada lily} {mariposa lily} {sego lily}.
large blue or white round flowers with star blossoms {agapanthus} {African lily}.
white flowers in cone shapes {calla lily}.
white flowers in lily shapes {convallaria} {lily of the valley}.
yellow flowers {daffodil}.
large white flowers {Easter lily}.
pink to purple flowers {hyacinthus} {hyacinth, flower}.
yellow flowers {jonquil}.
white flowers in long clusters {mayflower} {trailing arbutus}.
purple flowers {muscari} {grape hyacinth}.
white flowers in clusters {narcissus}.
white flowers {galanthus} {snowdrop}.
white flowers {leucojan} {snowflake}.
green flowers with unique shape {Soloman's seal} {polygonatum}.
white flowers, Africa {spider plant} (Chlorophytum).
orange flowers {kniphofia} {red-hot poker} {torch lily}.
red or yellow flowers {tulipa} {tulip}.
blue flowers {wood hyacinth} {Spanish bluebells} (Scilla) (Hyacinthoides).
cactus-like, long spiny leaves, yellow flowers {agave} {mescal}.
long spiny leaves {century plant} {maguey}.
red-pink flowers {peyote plant} (Lophophora williamsii).
white flowers {polianthes} {tuberose}.
blue-purple flowers in long clusters {lobelia} {great blue lobelia} {Indian tobacco}.
shrubs {elderberry}.
pink or yellow flowers in round cluster {honeysuckle} {woodbine}.
red flowers {viburnum} {Guelder rose} {snowball tree}.
red flowers {weigela} {diervilla}.
shrubs {mistletoe}.
shrubs {crape myrtle} {loosestrife family}.
various color flowers {lavatera} {mallow}.
various color flowers {hibiscus} {rose mallow} {marsh mallow} {kenaf}.
perennial, purple flowers, wild mallow {althea} {hollyhock}.
bananas (Musaceae) {banana family}.
large bird shape flowers {strelitzia} {bird of paradise}.
green flowers with unique shape {plantain, flower}.
shrubs {myrtle}.
deciduous, east North America, shrubs {bayberry} {wax myrtle} (Myrica pennsylvanica). Root bark contains drugs. Jamaica bayberry root bark makes bay rum.
red flowers {bougainvillea} {four o'clock family}.
white or yellow flowers, water {water lily} {pond lily} {nymphaea}.
white flowers, water {lily pad}.
white water flowers {lotus, flower}. Lotus leaves have surface cells with micron-size bumps and nanometer-size wax crystals, to repel water and so stay clean {lotus effect}.
succulent stems {saguaro} {nopal} {cactus}.
Africa, succulent leaves, analgesic sap {aloe} (Aloe vera).
Cactus {cholla} can have cylindrical water-filled stems. It relates to prickly pear.
oval, top flowers {zygocactus} {Christmas cactus}.
Large yucca trees {Joshua tree} can grow in Mojave desert and have spiky leaves.
Cactus {prickly pear} can have flat water-filled pads. It relates to cholla.
long pointed leaves {yucca} {Adam's needle} {Spanish bayonet}.
various color flowers with unique shape {orchid}.
various color flowers with unique shape {cattleya}.
yellow flowers with unique shape {lady's slipper} {cypripedium}.
pink or white flowers {oxalis} {wood sorrel}.
yellow or red or pink simple flowers {sorrel, flower}.
{wood sorrel family}.
large flowers {peony} {paeonia}.
orange flowers {poppy, flower} {papaver} {field poppy}.
blue flowers {meconopsis} {blue poppy} {Himalayan poppy} {Welsh poppy}.
white flowers {opium poppy}.
red flowers {passiflora} {passion flower}.
red berries then black pepper {piper} {pepper, plant}.
pink or blue-purple flowers in round clusters {phlox} (Polemoniaceae).
white flowers {polemonium} {Jacob's ladder}.
yellow flowers in round clusters {primula} {cowslip, primrose} {primrose, flower} {polyanthus} {auricula}.
pink, red, lavender, or white flowers {cyclamen}.
yellow flowers {oenothera} {evening primrose} {sundrop}.
white and red flowers {fuchsia, plant}.
red small flowers, low-growing {scarlet pimpernel} {anagallis} (Anagallis arvensis) {pimpernel}.
up to one-meter red flowers, rotten flesh smell, parasite, no roots, no stems, no leaves, no photosynthesis, pollinated by flies {Rafflesia}.
yellow simple flowers {buttercup}.
white or pink simple flowers {anemone, plant} {windflower} {wood anemone} {poppy anemone} {flame anemone}.
yellow flowers {clematis}.
red-orange flowers with unique shape {columbine, flower} {aquilegia}.
green flowers in long clusters {helleborus} {hellebore} {Christmas camelliarose} {beaten rose}.
blue-purple flowers {hepatica} {liverwort, flower}.
purple or yellow flowers in long clusters, perennial, palmate lobe or palmate divided {larkspur} {delphinium}.
yellow flowers {trollius} {globe flower}.
Roses {rosa} {rose, flower} {American Beauty rose} (Rosaceae) are at least 40 million years old. Egyptian rose is cabbage rose. European roses have strong smell and are hardy. Chinese tea roses have tea smell and are delicate. Hybrids are mixture and have various colors.
white simple flowers, shrubs, thorns {blackberry, flower}.
white or pink flowers, shrubs, thorns {bramble, plant} (Rubus).
yellow flowers {cinquefoil} (Potentilla).
white simple flowers, shrubs {raspberry, flower}.
white or pink flowers {spiraea}.
white simple flowers {strawberry, flower}.
shrubs {sweetbriar}.
white or yellow flowers {bedstraw}.
white or yellow flowers {woodruff}.
white flowers {gardenia} {cape jasmine}.
white flowers {madder}.
woody shrubs, temperate and tropical, includes citrus {rue, flower}.
yellow-green flowers, leaves turn red in autumn {dictamnus} {burning bush}.
white oval flowers with fuzz {willow, flower}.
white or yellow oval flowers with fuzz {pussy willow}.
brown-maroon flowers with unique shape, eats insects {pitcher plant} {nepenthus}.
white flowers in long or round clusters {saxifraga} {saxifrage}.
oil {jojoba} (Simmondsiaceae).
dicot {tomato, plant} {aubergine, potato family}.
blue-purple flowers {bittersweet plant} {Belladonna, flower} {deadly nightshade} {henbane} {nightshade} {thornapple}.
green-yellow flowers with brown-purple centers {physalis} {Chinese lantern, plant}.
various color flowers {potato, plant}.
yellow flowers, tall, leafy, annual {nicotiana} {tobacco plant} (Nicotiana tobaccum).
white flowers {storax}.
white or pale pink flowers {tamarix} {tamarisk}.
green or yellow flowers {yew, flower}.
white flowers {camellia} (Theaceae).
yellow flowers {trefoil, flower}.
white or red-orange flowers with unique shape, three-part leaves {clover} {red clover}.
three-part leaves {shamrock}.
white or brown or red or pink simple flowers {trillium}.
white flowers {tropaeolum} {nasturtium} (Tropaeolum).
perennial, marsh, creeping rootstock, long linear leaves {cattail}.
green flowers with unique shape {nettle}.
small pink or lavender or white flowers {valerian}. It makes medicinal.
light blue and white flowers {hebe} {veronica}.
blue-purple simple flowers {viola} {violet, flower} (Violaceae).
yellow or violet flowers {pansy}.
vine {grape, plant}.
vine {creeper}.
vine {Virginia creeper}.
Plants {resurrection plant} can come back after 95% dehydration (Xerophyta).
brown-maroon flowers with unique shape {ginger, flower}.
Herbs {herb, flower} have aromatic or flavorful flowers or leaves.
square stems, opposite leaves, flower clusters along stems {catnip} (mint family of Lamiaceae family).
Bark {chinchona} can have quinine.
Rhizomes {glycerrhiza glabra} can be licorice sticks.
pale blue flowers in clusters {rosmarinus} {rosemary, flower} (family Lamiaceae).
purple or yellow flowers in long clusters {salvia} {sage, plant} {clary}.
purple flowers {thymus, plant} {thyme, plant}.
Wild roses {wild rose} can make rosehips as fruits.
heath {checkerberry} {wintergreen, flower} {gaywings wintergreen}.
Poisonous herbs {aconitum} {monkshood} {wolf's bane} {wolfsbane} (Ranunculaceae) (Aconitus napelclus) can be aconite sources.
Wormwoods {wormwood} {sagebrush wormwood} are stimulants and central-nervous-system poisons. They are in absinthe drinks.
Grasses {grass} are short or tall. Grasses include aregrana, fescue, ryegrass, bluegrass, timothy, Bermuda, rice, wheat, sugarcane, corn, sorghum, millet, oats, rye, and barley. Grasses began 66,000,000 years ago.
Woody grasses {bamboo} can have jointed, mostly hollow, stems.
Bouteloua gracilis {blue grama grass} is cold-and-drought tolerant, for north North America plains.
Buchloe dactyloides {buffalo grass} is drought tolerant for North-American short-grass prairie.
tall grass-like sedge or marsh grass {bulrush}.
short grass {cheat grass}.
short coarse grass {crabgrass}.
white-flower grass {linum} {flax, grass} (Linaceae).
Dry medium-size cylinders {ear, corn} can have white, purple, red, and yellow kernels {Indian corn}.
pink-flower grass {cortaderia} {pampas grass}.
Swamp or marsh grasses {reed, plant}| can be tall with hollow stems.
wetland grass {sedge}|.
Paspalum notatum {bahia grass} is tough, coarse, and drought-and-shade tolerant, for southeast USA.
Creeping Agrostis stolonifera {bent grass} is short, soft, fine, and perennial, for northern putting greens.
Cynodon dactylon {Bermuda grass} {devil grass} is short, soft, and heat-and-drought tolerant, for Sun Belt and sport fields.
Poa pratensis {bluegrass, lawn} {Kentucky bluegrass} is cold-tolerant, short, and soft and is the most-popular lawn grass in northeast and north-central USA.
Eremochloa ophiuroides {centipede grass} is acid tolerant, for southeast USA and Hawaii.
Grasses {fescue, fine} can be short, soft, and fine-leaved or needle-leaved. Chewings fescue is Festuca rubra commutata and is sand and acid tolerant. Creeping red fescue is Festuca rubra. Hard fescue is Festuca longifolia and is short and cold tolerant.
Festuca arundinacea {fescue, tall} is tall or broad-leaved, is heat and drought tolerant, and used in tough and coarse pasture grass.
Lolium multiflorum {ryegrass, annual} is annual used in southern regions but is not heat tolerant.
Lolium perenne {ryegrass, perennial} is fine and soft.
Paspalum vaginatum {seashore paspalum} is from South-African sand dunes, is like Bermuda grass, and is for salty soil.
Stenotaphrum secundatum {St. Augustine grass} grows fast and is coarse, for south and west USA.
Grasses {zoysia grass} can be stiff Japanese lawn grass (Zoysia japonica), stiff and flat Manila grass (Zoysia matrella), and wiry fine Korean grass (Zoysia tenuifolia).
Trees {ailanthus} {tree of heaven} {stinkweed} can live in Asia, have pinnate compound leaves, have yellow and crimson samaras in masses, have yellow-green flower clusters, and have sexes on different trees.
Trees {alder} can have catkins and strobiles, live in wet areas, and be deciduous: red alder or Oregon alder or western alder, black alder, and common alder.
Trees {ash tree} can be tall, have compound pinnate leaves, have samara clusters, and have sexes on different trees: European ash, white ash, flowering ash, blue ash, green ash or red ash or swamp ash or river ash or water ash, black ash, and Oregon ash.
Trees {birch} can have little upright seed filled cones {strobile}, have catkins, have white or other-colored bark, be deciduous, and relate to alders. Birches include gray birch or poplar, paper birch or white birch, yellow birch or silver birch or swamp birch, Japanese birch, weeping cut-leaf European birch, red birch or river birch or water birch, and black birch or sweet birch or cherry birch. Sweet birch has wintergreen aroma.
Trees {buttonbush} can be shrubs, like wet ground, have curving crooked branches and shiny leaves, and have tiny cream-colored flowers on stalks in round two-centimeter clusters, which turn into brown spherical seed clusters.
Trees {catalpa} can be medium height, have big broad leaves, have white or pale-blue bell-shaped flower clusters, and have long thin seedpods with many winged seeds: common catalpa or Indian bean, catawba-tree or northern catalpa or hardy catalpa, yellow catalpa, western catalpa, and related princess-tree or Paulownia.
Trees {chaste-tree} can be vitex agnus-castus and vitex negando incisa.
Mediterranean evergreen oak trees {cork plant} {cork oak} can have thick bark.
Trees {cornus} {dogwood} can have four-petal white flowers and red drupes: flowering dogwood, red-osier dogwood, Pacific dogwood, rough dogwood, and blue-fruited dogwood.
Trees {elder tree} can have compound leaves and white flower clusters that turn into red berries: common elder, red-berried elder, and elderberry.
Trees {elm} can have seed wafers and hairs on upper leaf surfaces. They are susceptible to Dutch elm disease. Elms include Scotch elm, English elm, slippery elm or red elm or gray elm, American elm or white elm, rock elm, and Chinese elm. Oaks, elms, and maples have simple leaves and not many leaflets on one stalk. Cherries, elms, lindens, and many other trees have leaves all along twig {compound leaf}.
Trees {eucalyptus} {blue gum} can have willow-like leaves, be evergreen, have bark that peels, come from Australasia, and live in south and west USA.
Trees {golden-chain} {laburnum} can be like fragrant sumac.
Trees {hickory} can have edible nuts, have compound leaves {pinnate leaf, hickory}, have both sexes on same tree, and live in east USA: shagbark hickory, shellbark hickory, bitternut or swamp hickory, pignut or red hickory, mockernut or whiteheart or bullnut, and pecan.
Trees {holly} can have red berries, have dark green leaves, be usually shrubs, be evergreen, and like moist areas in east USA: American holly, European holly, and black alder or winterberry.
Shrubs {jatropha} can have large seeds that have up to 40% poisonous oil and grow in dry conditions in Tanzania and Mali.
Trees {linden} {basswood} can have yellow or cream flower clusters, hanging from narrow, leaf-like structures {bract}, which turn to fragrant nutlets, and often have red twigs and buds: European linden, heart-leaved linden, broad-leaved linden, white linden, American basswood, and white basswood. Lindens live in Europe and basswoods in USA. Cherries, elms, lindens, and many other trees have leaves all along twig.
Trees {locust, tree} can have flat leathery mahogany-colored or red-brown various-length seedpods, be tall, have doubly compound or compound leaves, and have white flowers. Locusts include black locust or common locust or yellow locust, honey locust or honey shuck, pagoda tree, yellowwood or virgilia, and Kentucky-coffee-tree. Honey locust has honey-like pulp, in pods, and compound thorns. Locusts are legumes.
Trees {magnolia, tree} can live in southeast USA, have leathery shiny green leaves that stay on all year, have large white flowers, have red fruiting cones, and like wet areas. Magnolias include true magnolia or Southern magnolia or great-flowered magnolia, saucer magnolia, sweet bay or white bay {laurel, tree} {bay laurel} {bay tree} or swamp magnolia, cucumber-tree, and umbrella-tree.
Trees {maple tree} can have leaves with three or five lobes opposite each other on branchlets, have double samaras, and have greenish yellow or red flowers.
types
Maples include hard maple {sugar maple}, red maple or swamp maple, silver maple or white maple or soft maple, sycamore, mountain maple, hedge maple, big-leaf maple, Norway maple, striped maple, black maple, and box-elder or ash-leaved maple.
Sugar maple makes maple syrup juice.
elder
Maples {box elder} {ash-leaved maple} can have compound leaves and sexes on different trees.
leaves
Oaks, elms, and maples have simple leaves and not many leaflets on one stalk. Maple, ash, and viburnum leaves always grow in pairs.
Small desert trees {mesquite} of Fabaceae or legume family make beans. Mesquite bean meal {pinole} can be food.
Trees {mountain ash} can have compound leaves, have white flower sprays in round clusters, have red berry clusters, be shrubs or small trees, and live in northeast North America: American mountain ash or rowan-tree or mountain sumac, and European mountain ash. Maple, ash, and viburnum leaves always grow in pairs.
Trees {mountain laurel} {California laurel} {Oregon myrtle} can have medium height, live on USA west coast, be evergreen, have green yellow plum-like drupes, and have camphor-like odor. Laurels are usually tropical.
Trees {oak} can include white oak or Oregon oak or Garry oak or California oak or swamp oak, English oak, chinquapin oak, swamp chestnut or basket oak, chestnut or rock oak, bur oak or mossy-cup, post oak or iron oak, live oak, blackjack, and overcup.
types
White oaks have acorns that mature every season, have many-lobed leaves with no bristles, are tall, are broad, and have catkins.
Live oaks have leaves that have no lobes and fall off in spring: emory oak, canyon live oak, coast live oak, and live oak.
Black or red oaks have acorns that mature in second year and have many-lobed leaves with bristles: black oak or yellow oak, red oak or Northern oak or swamp oak or Southern oak, pin oak, Shumerd oak, scarlet oak, cork oak, willow, laurel, shingle oak, and water oak.
Tanoaks or tanbark oaks are evergreen, grow slowly, make tannin, have both sexes on same tree, come from southeast Asia, and relate to oaks and chestnuts.
Willow oaks and shingle oaks are rare.
leaves
Oaks, elms, maples have simple leaves and not many leaflets on one stalk. Oaks and some magnolias and dogwoods have leaves at twig tips.
Trees {palmetto} can have one trunk, have top fronds, and live on USA southeast coast.
Trees {plane tree} can have bark with brown, cream-white, and pale-green spots on trunk and white spots on small branches. Plane trees are tall and large, like moist areas, have leaves like large maple leaves, have two-centimeter spherical brown seed clusters, and live in east and middle USA. Plane trees include American sycamore or plane tree or buttonwood, California sycamore {sycamore}, and London plane tree.
Trees {poplar} can grow fast, have broad leaves with flat petioles that allow shimmering, and have catkins: silver poplar, simon poplar, white poplar, Lombardy poplar, California poplar or black cottonwood, Eastern poplar or Eastern cottonwood. Lombardy poplar is most common. Poplars {aspen} can be American aspen, quaking aspen or golden aspen, large-toothed or big tooth aspen, and cottonwood or balsam poplar or tacamahac poplar or balm-of-Gilead.
Trees {redbud} {Judas tree} can be legumes, have red buds, have rose or purple flowers, have seedpods with eight-centimeter beans, and be shrubs.
Trees {rosewood} can have red wood.
Trees {sassafras tree} can have mitten-like leaves, small yellow flowers, blue fruits, red stems, and sassafras aroma. Sexes are on different trees.
Trees {service-tree} {serviceberry} {shadbush} can have white flowers with five petals, have purple berries, be usually shrub, and live in east USA.
Trees {sourwood} {sorrel-tree} can live in southeast USA, have lily-of-the-valley-like flowers, have lustrous long leaves, and belong to heath family.
Trees {spicebush} can have waxy little yellow flowers, be shrubs, have red drupes, have citronella odor, and be in clumps.
Trees {sumac} can have compound leaves and milky sap. Varieties with shiny leaves and drupe clusters can irritate skin. Sumacs include shiny sumac, staghorn, smooth sumac, dwarf sumac or wiry-rib, and poison sumac, poison ivy, and poison oak.
Trees {sweet-gum} {bilsted} can be tall, live in southeast USA, have star-shaped leaves, have sticky ooze, have smooth bark, have many pointed two-centimeter seed-capsule spheres on thin stalks, and have both sexes on same tree.
Tall, big, and straight trees {tulip tree} {yellow poplar} can have large flowers with green petals with orange inner parts with yellow rings, have samara clusters, and have leaves that turn gold in late summer.
Trees {tupelo} {black tupelo} {sourgum} {sour gum} {black gum} {hornpipe tree} can be medium height, live in east USA, like wet ground, have lustrous green leaves, have oval blue-black small drupes, and have sexes on different trees. Tupelos relate to cotton gum, water tupelo, or south-USA swamp gum.
Trees {wafer ash} {hoptree} can be shrubs or small trees with circular-samara clusters and three compound leaves.
Trees {western soapberry} can live in southwest USA, have yellowish drupes in clusters, have compound leaves, and have white flowers.
Trees {willow, tree} can have cylindrical pollen holders {catkin}, have long narrow leaves, and like moist ground. Willows include fast-growing weeping willow from China, purple willow, black willow or swamp willow, sandbar, glaucous willow, shiny willow, heart-leaf willow, goat willow or pussy willow, and peach-leaf willow.
Trees {witch-hazel tree} can be slanting shrubs or small trees, live in east USA, have four yellow ribbon-petal flowers, have nutlets, and make witch hazel.
white flowers {apple, flower}.
Fig trees {banyan} grow in India.
African and Australian trees {baobab} can have trunks that store water and hanging fruits like gourds.
Malaysian evergreens {breadfruit} can have large yellow fruits.
Trees {china berry} {Pride-of-India tree} can have double compound leaves and purple or lilac drupes in clusters.
Trees {malus} {crabapple tree} include wild crabapple and Iowa crabapple, with pink and white flowers. Hawthorns and crabapples are similar.
white, pink, purple, or crimson flowers {ficus} {fig, tree} (Adenium).
Small evergreen trees {guava} produce ovoid fruits.
Trees {hackberry} {sugarberry} can have purple drupes when ripe.
Trees {mulberry} can have mulberries and have milky juice. Mulberries include white mulberry in China, paper mulberry, and red mulberry. Osage-orange or bowdeck has orange bark, thorns, sexes on different trees, and green-yellow seven-centimeter to twelve-centimeter spherical fruit masses.
Trees {orchard tree} can include apple, quince, pear, peach, cherry, apricot, and almond. Bud growing strength, prevailing winds, and nearby tree positions affect tree shape.
Trees {persimmon, tree} can be smooth, have round orange-colored fruits with red seeds, have shiny leaves, have corrugated bark, have medium height, and live in south, middle, and west USA. Red seeds are edible just after cold weather starts.
Prune-related trees {prunus} include almond, cherry, peach, and plum.
Cherry trees {cherry tree} include wild cherry or black cherry or rum cherry, choke cherry, bird cherry or fire cherry or pin cherry, sour cherry, Mahaleb cherry, and Cornelian-cherry. Cherry trees have red or black cherries, are short trees or shrubs, and have white flowers.
leaves
Cherries, elms, lindens, and many other trees have leaves all along twig.
berries
Other berry trees {wild berry tree} are wild plum, dwarf cornel or bunchberry, silky cornel or kinnikinnick, sweet haw or black haw, sweet viburnum, nannyberry, southern arrowwood, and maple-leaved viburnum. Viburnum is usually shrub, has opposite leaves, has cap-like five-petal white-flower clusters on eight stalks on one twig, and has small blue drupes. Maple, ash, and viburnum leaves always grow in pairs. Arrowwoods like wet ground.
Trees {beech} can have smooth tight light gray bark, be tall, have small beechnuts, have both sexes on one tree, have fluffy staminate-flower clusters, and live in east USA: American beech and European beech. Chestnuts and beeches are similar.
Trees {bladdernut} can be small east-USA trees or shrubs, with three compound leaves and three-lobed seedpods.
Trees {buckeye} can have palmate compound leaves, upright flower clusters, and spherical pods with one nut: Ohio buckeye, sweet buckeye or yellow buckeye or large buckeye, and southwest-Asia horse-chestnut.
Trees {buckthorn} {wahoo} {cascara} {bearberry} {bearwood} {coffee tree} can have medium height, like moisture, have small black drupes, and live on USA west coast.
Trees {chestnut, tree} can have large chestnuts and pointed staminate-flower clusters: European chestnut or copper chestnut, American chestnut, and Japanese chestnut. Chestnuts and beeches are similar. They have almost died out from imported fungus.
Trees {Chinese buckeye} can include golden-rain-tree and Chinese buckeye.
Trees {European hazelnut} {filbert, tree} can be rare.
Trees {haw} {hawthorn} (Crataegus) can have thorns, be shrubs or small trees, have twisted branches, have white or pink five-petal flowers, have fruits like rosehips, and live in east North America. Rosehips can be red, orange, or yellow. Haws include dotted-thorn, English hawthorn, cockspur-thorn, Washington-thorn, common red haw or hawthorn or haw, pear haw, and mush haw. Hawthorns and crabapples are similar.
Australia {hazel}.
Large trees {horse chestnut} can make white flowers in spring in candle shapes and make green fruit in fall that contain seeds {conker}.
Date trees {jujube tree} {red date} {Chinese date} can have drupe fruits (Ziziphus).
Trees {kola} can have kola nuts.
Soapberry plants produce red fruits {litchi nut} with sweet white insides.
Trees {pawpaw, tree} can be shrubs or small trees, live in east USA, and have purple flowers and crumpled pouches with green, then brown, edible fruit.
East-USA trees {pignut hickory} {sweet pignut} {coast pignut} {smoothbark hickory} {swamp hickory} {broom hickory} can make pear-shaped nuts.
Trees {walnut, tree} can have hard edible nuts, oblong for butternut and round for walnut, and compound leaves {pinnate leaf, walnut}: black walnut, English walnut or Persian walnut, and butternut or white walnut.
rare {Amur cork tree}.
rare {European smoke tree}.
rare {fringe-tree}.
rare {groundsel-tree}.
rare {hardy-mahogany}.
rare {hercules-club}.
rare {katsura tree}.
rare {prickly ash}.
rare {rose-of-Sharon, tree}.
rare {silver-bell-tree}.
rare {silverberry}.
rare {zelkova}.
American tropics have trees {balsa} with light soft wood {corkwood}.
Tropical pea trees {brazilwood} can have red wood.
Tropical trees {mahogany} can make reddish hard wood.
Small trees {mangrove} can grow on coasts {mangal} in shallow water.
Mulberry-family trees {rubber plant, tree} can be from Asia and North Africa.
Southeast Asian trees {sandalwood} can make sweet smelling wood.
Spurge trees {teak} {African teak} {African oak} (Verbenaceae) can make heavy wood.
palms {areca palm}.
palms {assai palm}.
Smooth-barked tropical trees {coconut palm} can grow 20 to 30 meters high, have one trunk, have ring scars where leaves fell off, and have large drupes.
Palm trees {date palm} {palm tree} can have bark covered with leaf sheaths, grow 20 to 30 meters high, have one trunk, and have date clusters.
Weeds {weed} are fast growing flowers.
white simple flowers {chick weed}.
yellow flowers {hopweed} {cow parsley} {keck}.
red or pink flowers in round clusters {ironweed}.
pink flowers {joe-pye weed}.
Weeds {locoweed} can be poisonous to animals.
white flowers in long clusters, monocot {pokeweed} (Phytolaccaceae).
green flowers {ragweed}.
Ocean plants {sargasso} can be kelp-like.
Crops {crop} are typically grasses. Rye, oats, turnips, radish, beets, leeks, and lettuce started as weeds.
grass {alfalfa}.
tobacco {burley}.
Ancient cabbage {cabbage} became cabbage, kale, kohlrabi, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and broccoli.
Seeds make chocolate, cocoa, and cocoa butter {cacao, chocolate}.
Plants {cotton} (Malvaceae) can have seeds surrounded by soft white fibers.
Plants {cover crop} that hold soil and retain water can cover farmland.
Fiber plants {fiber, plants} include flax in Mesopotamia. Flax seeds have linseed oil. Hemp is in China. Cotton is in Mesoamerica, Andes, Sahel, and India. Yucca is in Mesoamerica. Agave is in Mesoamerica.
Hay and cereals are food {fodder} for farm animals.
peanut {goober}.
Tall plants {hemp} can make fibers.
Cabbages {kale, plant} can have loose leaves.
Melons {melon} include muskmelon in Mesopotamia; squash in Mesoamerica, Andes, Amazon, and east USA [-2000]; watermelon in Sahel; bottle gourd in Sahel; and cucumber in India.
hay or straw stack {rick}.
Plant leaves can make fibers {sisal}.
Pods can have acidic pulp {tamarind}.
Cereals {cereal crop} {grain crop} {crop, grass} are grasses.
wheat
Emmer wheat was in Mesopotamia. Einkorn wheat was in Mesopotamia. Wheat was in Mesopotamia.
barley
Barley was in Mesopotamia. Little barley was in east USA [-500].
rice
African rice was in Sahel. Rice was in China.
millet
Pearl millet was in Sahel. Foxtail millet was in China. Broomcorn millet was in China. Finger millet was in Ethiopia.
corn
Corn was in Mesoamerica. Corn and wheat have phytate, which binds iron and calcium. Corn has low niacin. Different corn strains lack an essential amino acid.
other
Cereals include sorghum in Sahel, teff in Ethiopia, maygrass in east USA [-500], knotweed in east USA [-500], sumpweed in east USA [-2000], goosefoot in east USA [-2000], sunflower in east USA [-2000], and sugar cane in New Guinea. Sumpweed relates to daisy. Goosefoot relates to spinach.
seed
Quinoa from Andes mountains is not cereal, It has seeds with all eight essential amino acids.
Mills can grind cereal grains {grist}.
hulled and crushed oats {groats}.
Workers bundle and tie cut grain stalks {sheaves}.
Water grass makes brown seeds {wild rice}.
Roots {cassava, root crop} can make tapioca.
Root vegetables {root vegetable} include jicama in Mesoamerica, manioc or cassava in Andes and Amazon, sweet potato in Andes and Amazon, potato in Andes and Amazon, oca in Andes and Amazon, African yam in Sahel, Jerusalem artichoke in east USA, yam in New Guinea, and taro in New Guinea.
Starchy roots {taro} (Araceae) can be edible.
Crops {forage, crop}| can feed ruminants. They are typically herbaceous perennials that are dormant in cold, hot, or dry seasons. Forage crops can be annuals, such as Sudan grass, millet, corn, sorghum, and other legumes and grasses. Ruminants can digest forage cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Forage crops occupy five times more land than human grain crops.
Forage can be fresh and chopped {green chop}.
Forage can be dry {hay}|.
Forage can be dry silage {haylage}.
Forage can be finely chopped and stored in silos to ferment {silage}|.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225