He studied opium effects.
He lived 1737 to 1798 and observed frog muscles twitch when touched by electrified wires {galvanic stimulation} [1780].
He lived 1760 to 1808 and discovered analgesic effects of nitrous oxide [1798].
He lived 1776 to 1832 and studied memory storage and retrieval and physiological bases of normal brain function.
He lived 1783 to 1855, studied emetine and morphine drugs, and studied iodides and bromides in nutrition. He poisoned animals with Javanese arrow poison in various ways, described convulsions and asphyxia, sectioned spinal cord, and isolated strychnine [1818]. Spinal-nerve anterior and posterior roots have separate functions {Bell-Magendie law, Magendie}: dorsal root is sensory, and ventral root is motor [1822].
He lived 1785 to 1853 and observed stomach functions [1822 to 1833].
He lived 1776 to 1847, studied osmosis [1824], studied plant respiration and light sensitivity [1824 to 1830], and worked on cell theory.
He lived 1801 to 1858 and founded modern physiology. Sensation type depends on stimulated neurons, not on what stimulates them {doctrine of specific nerve energies, Muller}.
He lived 1811 to 1868. Muscle cells have electric current [1842].
He lived 1815 to 1848 and first used nitrous-oxide anesthetic [1844] when he extracted his tooth.
He lived 1818 to 1896. Nerve cells have resting potential [1845] that decreases with nerve impulse. Nerves conduct electricity. Nerve impulses transmit chemically [1877].
He lived 1803 to 1861 and studied hormones [1849] and transplantation.
He lived 1813 to 1878, studied pancreas [1849], studied liver and carbohydrates [1851], and noted curare's effects on nerve transmission to muscle [1853]. Anesthetics affect single cell organisms, such as green slime mold, amoebae, and paramecia [1875]. Internal environments {milieu interieur} can have constancies {homeostasis, Bernard}.
He lived 1824 to 1886. After axons are cut, neuron cell bodies often die and disappear {retrograde cell degeneration} [1870], providing method to study nerve pathways.
He lived 1835 to 1922 and studied neuron axons and conduction [1878].
He lived 1853 to 1913 and studied nerve impulse, which has refractory period [1899].
He lived 1848 to 1909. Alternating flashing lights can make afterimages {Bidwell's ghost}.
He lived 1839 to 1917 and measured nerve-impulse conduction speed [1902]. Neural ion concentrations change slightly during nerve impulses and cause nerve potential differences and action potentials {membrane theory} [1902 to 1912]. Local electric current flows between axon resting region and impulse region and causes depolarization {local circuit hypothesis}. This was idea of Ludimar Hermann.
He lived 1849 to 1936 and studied neurosis, peripheral nerves, digestion physiology, classical conditioning, and reflexes.
Contradictory stimuli can disturb balance between nervous-system excitatory and inhibitory processes, and personality affects whether neurosis develops.
Vagus nerve controls blood pressure, and four nerves control and vary heartbeat rhythm and intensity. Depending on saliva and food, tasting food {sham feeding} can release gastric juice, which has enzymes {enterokinase}.
Dogs associate neutral stimulus with reflex. Conditional reflex forms more easily if unconditional stimulus, such as food, follows conditional stimulus, such as bell, than if they are simultaneous or if conditional stimulus follows unconditional stimulus. Conditional reflex forms more easily if conditional stimulus is nearer in time to unconditional stimulus. Conditional stimulus that starts just before unconditional stimulus is as effective as conditional stimulus that started long before unconditional stimulus and lasted until just before. More intense conditional and unconditional stimuli cause greater conditioned responses. Training conditional stimulus allows testing similar conditional stimuli to investigate animal sense discriminations. External inhibition, internal inhibition, new environments, and new stimuli affect conditioning. If conditional and unconditional stimuli no longer pair, conditioned reflex gradually decreases. Maintaining conditioned reflex requires regular reinforcement. Conditioned reflex is similar to other reflexes. Conditional reflex formation is adaptation whereby animal can survive better in changing environment.
He lived 1866 to 1947 and studied light and dark photosynthesis [1905].
He lived 1869 to 1939, stimulated brains and elicited sensation without movement [1908], and described Cushing's syndrome [1912].
He lived 1879 to 1916 and studied nerve impulse, with Francis Gotch. Nerve impulse is all-or-nothing, with refractory period afterward [1909].
He lived 1885 to 1946. He identified four bitter, salty, sour, and sweet primary tastes [1924], which he put at tetrahedron corners. He identified six primary smells [1916], which he put at prism corners.
Evans lived 1882 to 1971. Long lived 1879 to 1953. They isolated human growth hormone [1921].
He lived 1873 to 1961, proved that neurotransmitters cross junction between nerve cells, using vagus nerve to heart, and so proved that synapses were chemical not electrical [1921], and studied acetylcholine chemical synapse.
He lived 1889 to 1977 and recorded afferent-nerve impulses, with Lucas' capillary electrometer [1925]. Neurons use impulse-frequency modulation.
He lived 1890 to 1958 and studied cerebral-cortex lesion effects on intelligence, rat maze learning [1920 to 1930], and mass-action law [Lashley, 1956].
He lived 1902 to 1996. Long-term memory needs protein synthesis.
He lived 1875 to 1968 and studied chemical synapses [1936].
Hodgkin lived 1914 to 1998. Huxley lived 1917 to ?. They used squid giant axons to prove that ions flow across membrane rather than down axon {local circuit hypothesis, Hodgkin}, by locally increasing and decreasing extracellular-fluid conductivity [1937]. Sodium ions have ion channels, and potassium ions have separate ion channels. During action potentials, membranes are first more permeable to sodium ions, flowing in, and then potassium ions, flowing out, so potential becomes negative {Hodgkin-Huxley theory} [1952].
He lived 1896 to 1966 and developed sensation fields {afferent field, Bernstein}. He studied feedback and feedforward mechanisms. He studied human coordination and movement physiology by photographing lights fastened to arms and legs. Human movements have patterns and structures, and people maintain basic patterns no matter which organ or limb they use [Bernstein, 1947].
He lived 1911 to 2003. Action potentials open calcium-ion channels, and calcium inflow leads to release of 5000-transmitter-molecule packets from synaptic vesicles into synapse.
He lived 1912 to 1980 and used lithium carbonate to treat mania [1949].
He lived 1915 to ?. Amygdala stimulation by electrodes {stimoceiver} can trigger aggressive behavior [1955].
He lived 1913 to 1980. Cat-retina ON-center and OFF-center ganglion cells respond to illumination changes [1953].
He lived 1901 to 1978 and discovered vasopressin [1953].
He lived 1909 to 1999. Synaptic vesicles release transmitter packets only at active synapse zones {active zone}, where calcium ion channels are [1961].
He lived 1926 to ?. Long-term memory needs protein synthesis.
He lived 1921 to ?, studied fruit flies, and mutated single genes to affect courtship rituals, vision, circadian rhythms, memory, and learning. He found proteins used in non-declarative memory.
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He studied learning and memory in marine snails.
He developed Cerebellar Model Articulation Controller [1975].
He showed that visual cortical neurons respond to frequency rather than edges or lines {direct spatial information} [1975]. They detect fundamental frequency and higher frequencies, together with orientation. He used gratings, checkerboards, and plaid patterns. Results matched results expected from analysis by Fourier transforms.
He lived 1940 to ?.
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He lived 1946 to 2001 and studied neurophenomenology. Living cells rebuild themselves {autopoiesis, Varela} [1988], with Maturana.
He studied sleep and developed AIM model [Hobson, 2002].
Special neuron stimulation can cause excitation over hours, involving protein-kinase phosphorylation after calcium-ion influx [1991].
Only active synapses can take up protein to permanently alter synapse [1997], with Uwe Frey.
Inhibition or blocking of NMDA receptor complexes, as done by ketamine and nitrous oxide, causes unconsciousness [2000]. Consciousness is a high-level representation that brain has representations, using NMDA-receptor-linked cell assemblies firing synchronously [Flohr, 2000]. However, NMDA receptors are just as involved in non-conscious processes [Hardcastle, 2000]. Many anesthetics, such as etomidate, act on other sites [Franks and Lieb, 2000].
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Date Modified: 2022.0225