He lived 1688 to 1752, developed artificial pupil, and removed kidney stones {kidney stone removal} and cataracts.
He lived 1749 to 1823 {smallpox vaccine}.
He lived 1821 to 1894 and founded perceptual physiology {ophthalmoscope, Helmholtz}. He developed Young-Helmholtz trichromatic color-vision theory and studied lens accommodation. He first timed nerve-signal conduction rate and muscle-action times [1850]. Speed at which electrical impulses travel along nerve fibers limits human reaction time. Pitch discrimination depends on resonance {fixed pitch theory}.
Epistemology
People cannot know external physical events and only have neural signals. Neural signals from senses gain meaning from learned associations, which depend on assumptions that can be incorrect. Perceptions are unconscious inferences. People cannot experience or introspect how they perceive or think. People cannot know data on which brain bases perceptions and beliefs. During perceptions and decisions to perform muscle movements, nerve signals switch. Body sense receptors receive and analyze physical energies from outside world to make independent, simple, and unnoticeable sensations, and brains learn to perceive objects and events that probably produced sensations {classical theory of psychology}.
He lived 1845 to 1913.
He lived 1870 to 1959 {tissue culture}.
He lived 1899 to 1972. Sound vibrations travel from one inner-ear basilar-membrane end toward the other [1928 to 1932]. For sound frequencies, different membrane positions have maximum vibration.
He lived 1918 to ?, determined insulin amino-acid sequence [1950], and developed method to sequence DNA [1977].
He lived 1910 to 1976 and studied body electrical behavior {toposcopy}, muscle contraction, electroencephalograms, electroconvulsive therapy, frequency analysis, and evoked potentials. He implanted brain electrodes to study epilepsy and treat psychiatric illness in conscious humans.
Brain-function electromechanical models, with two control systems and several interacting units, can produce life-like behavior, including learning, as in electromechanical tortoise called M. speculatrix.
Brain electrical potential has negative shift between associated stimuli just before decision becomes public {contingent negative variation} (CNV). Motor cortex sends output before people act [Walter, 1953]. Helical scanner measures and displays frequencies and phases on short time-scales from many brain electrodes.
He lived 1914 to 1995 {polio vaccine}.
He lived 1906 to 1993 {oral polio vaccine}.
He found Shine-Dalgarno sequence [1961].
Cohen lived 1922 to ?. Boyer lived 1936 to ?.
They started gene engineering {genetic engineering}.
They developed method to sequence DNA [1977].
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) developed to make multiple copies of DNA.
He studied human identification {DNA fingerprinting, Jeffreys}.
Successful therapy {gene therapy, French} treated adenosine deaminase deficiency {adenosine deaminase deficiency} (ADA).
He cloned Dolly the sheep from adult sheep cells {mammal cloning}.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225