Perhaps, sense qualities arose in humans or mammals from new brain regions or functions {brain evolution and first sensation}. However, human and mammal brain regions and functions are similar to other-vertebrate brain regions and functions, so humans and mammals seem to have nothing fundamentally new in brain.
After sense-region duplication, original region performs original function, so duplicated region can evolve to perform new functions, such as receive from another sense and integrate two senses {brain region duplication and multisense qualities}.
Vision processing {color processing} represents color brightness, hue, and saturation.
photoreceptors
Rods have photopigment with maximum sensitivity at bluish-green 498 nm, to measure light intensity. Cone types have maximum sensitivity at one wavelength and lower sensitivities at other wavelengths.
Non-primate mammals have cones with photopigments with maximum sensitivity at indigo 424 nm to 437 nm (short-wavelength receptor) and yellow-green 555 nm to 564 nm (long-wavelength receptor). Non-primate mammals can distinguish colors over the same light-frequency range as primates. Because they have only one color dimension, they may or may not see subjective colors.
Primates have cones with photopigments with maximum sensitivity at indigo 437 nm (short-wavelength receptor), green 534 nm (middle-wavelength receptor), and yellow-green 564 nm (long-wavelength receptor). Because they have two color dimensions, they may see subjective colors.
neurons
ON-center and OFF-center neurons calculate cone-input sum, which represents intensity, or ratio, which represents light frequency. The first opponent-process ratio was for yellowness and blueness. The second opponent-process ratio was for redness and greenness.
Later processing categorizes colors. Perhaps, whiteness can change to light yellowness, and blackness can change into dark blueness. Perhaps, yellowness split into darker orangeness and lighter greenness, which mixes blueness and yellowness. Perhaps, orangeness becomes redness.
labeled lines and topographic maps
Visual-tract axons carry color-blob opponent-process information from retina to lateral-geniculate-nucleus and primary-visual-cortex topographic maps. Senses have labeled lines because their neurons follow sense-specific pathways and have physiological specializations.
color lightness
The lightness color parameter relates directly to the difference between brightness and short-wavelength-receptor output: M + L - S. In order of increasing color lightness, black causes no response. Blue has small M-receptor and L-receptor outputs and large S-receptor output. Red has middle M-receptor and L-receptor outputs and small S-receptor output. Green has large M-receptor and L-receptor outputs and medium S-receptor output. Yellow has large M-receptor and L-receptor outputs and medium-small S-receptor output. White has very large M-receptor and L-receptor outputs and medium S-receptor output. Therefore, subjective color lightness relates directly to the blue-yellow opponent process.
color temperature
The temperature (warmth and coolness) color parameter relates directly to difference of long-wavelength-receptor and middle-wavelength-receptor outputs: L - M [Hardin, 1988]. In order of increasing color temperature, blue has small L-receptor and medium-small M-receptor outputs. Green has medium L-receptor and large M-receptor outputs. Black causes no response. White has very large L-receptor and M-receptor outputs. Yellow has large L-receptor and large M-receptor outputs. Red has large L-receptor and medium M-receptor outputs. Therefore, subjective color temperature relates directly to the red-green opponent process.
brightness, lightness, temperature
If black has brightness 0, and if blue, red, and green have maximum brightness 1, then brightness ranges from 0 to 3. Magenta adds blue and red to make 2. Cyan adds blue and green to make 2. Yellow adds red and green to make 2. White adds blue, red, and green to make 3.
If blue, red, and green have lightness 1, 2, and 3, respectively, lightness ranges from 0 to 6. Magenta adds blue and red to make 3. Violet adds blue and half red to make 3. Orange adds red and half green to make 3.5. Cyan adds blue and green to make 4. Chartreuse adds half red and green to make 4. Yellow adds red and green to make 5. White adds blue, red, and green to make 6. Blue and yellow, red and cyan, and green and magenta add blue, green, and red to make white 6.
If blue, green, and red have temperature -2, 0, and 2, respectively, temperature ranges from -2 to +2. Cyan averages blue and green to make -1. Magenta averages blue and red to make 0. White averages blue, red, and green to make 0. Blue and yellow, red and cyan, and green and magenta average blue, green, and red to make white 0. Chartreuse averages half red and green to make 0.5. Yellow averages red and green to make 1. Violet averages blue and half red to make 1. Orange averages red and half green to make 1.5.
If brightness is first coordinate, lightness is second coordinate, and temperature is third coordinate, blue is (1,1,-2), red is (1,2,2), and green is (1,3,0). Magenta is (2,3,0). Cyan is (2,4,-1). Yellow is (2,5,1). White is (3,6,0). Black is (0,0,0). Darkest gray is (0.5,1.0,0.0). Dark gray is (1,2,0). Gray is (1.5,3.0,0.0). Light gray is (2,4,0). Lightest gray is (2.5,5.0,0.0).
brightness and blackness
The brightness color property depends on the brightness color parameter, which sums long-wavelength-receptor and middle-wavelength-receptor outputs: L + M. Black has low brightness. Blue wavelength is far from L and M maximum-sensitivity wavelengths, so blue is dim. Red wavelength is closer to L and M maximum-sensitivity wavelengths, so red has average brightness. Green wavelength is close to L and M maximum-sensitivity wavelengths, so green is bright. White adds green, red, and blue and is brightest.
saturation and whiteness
Colors can have whiteness. White adds to primary colors linearly and equally. Any color mixture has red, green, and blue. In any color mixture, red, green, or blue has the lowest brightness, and the other two colors have at least that brightness. Therefore, whiteness is three times the lowest-brightness-primary-color brightness. Subtracting lowest-brightness-primary-color brightness from the other two primary-color brightnesses, and then adding the two results defines hue brightness. Saturation is hue brightness divided by total brightness. Unsaturation is whiteness divided by total brightness. Hue brightness and whiteness add to 100%. Vision processing compares adjacent and overall brightnesses to adjust brightness and so saturation.
hue
Three photoreceptor types and two opponent processes determine color categories [Krauskopf et al., 1982]. Two color-blob-neuron opponent processes detect red-green and blue-yellow ranges [Livingstone and Hubel, 1984].
Retina unit areas have one Long-wavelength, one Middle-wavelength, and one Short-wavelength cone. See Figure 1. Any-wavelength light excites all cones. Retina opponent processes calculate L - M and L + M - S. See Figure 2. Comparing opponent processes, using thresholds to separate continuous frequency-intensity spectra into discrete categories, selects three color-categories. If both opponent-process ranges can be from -1 to +1, blue is (-1,-1), green is (0,0), and red is (+1,+1), where the first value is the L - M range, and the second value is the L + M - S range.
Comparing opponent processes selects four color-categories. Blue is (-1,0), green is (0,+1), yellow is (+1,+1), and red is (+1,0). See Figure 2.
Adding the black-gray-white sense process selects the red, yellow, green, blue, black, gray, and white color categories. See Figure 3.
Vision processing subtracts the smallest primary-color brightness from the other two primary-color brightnesses, and then adds the two results to find hue brightness. Vision processing compares adjacent and overall hue brightnesses to adjust local hue.
opponency pairs
Brightness opponency pairs with darkness opponency. Yellow-blue opponency pairs with blue-yellow opponency. Red-green opponency pairs with green-red opponency. Brain compares opponency pairs for verification and discrimination.
color constancy
Visual-area-V4 neurons account for background illumination, which reflects differentially from local areas, to make color constancy. Spreading excitation, lateral inhibition, and object and object-relation knowledge help make color constancy.
location
A separate visual system finds color spatial locations. The location system finds visual angle (space direction) and distance.
color and location integration
Location system and color system information integrate to specify contrast, color, orientation, shape, location, distance, and time.
Television-screen electron guns excite phosphors that shine until beam returns, so picture persists. Sensory-motor processing exchanges information and interconnects neurons faster than neuron signals decay, making spaces, times, intensities, and sense qualities continuous {continuity and sensations}.
Low-level processing determines high-level processing, and high-level processing sends feedback to low-level processing. However, high-level-processing feedback is not noticeable, because it causes only secondary effects, has complex features, is statistical, uses whole brain, and takes much longer times {high-level processing and sensations}.
Holding all variables, except one, constant can find the derivative with respect to the non-constant variable. Unchanging partial differentials are invariants. Neuron-assembly processing can detect perceptual invariants {invariants and sensations}. Invariants persist and so can become memories.
Perhaps, brain compared before-and-after or adjacent perceptions, and perception changes caused first sensation {perception change and first sensation}. Perhaps, brain compared perception and memory, and sense qualities arose from spatial-gradients, temporal-gradients, differences, or errors. For example, people can realize that motion does not have expected effect. Error can cause punishment or can lower reward. Perhaps, brain detected position differences, and sense qualities arose as movement perception. Perhaps, sense qualities arose as perceptual-process modification, distinction, realization, notice, feeling, or comparison. However, changes, differences, gradients, and errors use same units as original quantities and so are not new things.
Conscious sense qualities have largest combination number and so highest-probability state {probability and sensations}.
Stimuli tend to cause muscular or glandular responses. Perhaps, sense qualities arose as responses became notes, marks, or signals {response internalization and first sensation}. Alternatively, brain processes can inhibit tendencies or internal signals. However, behavior is not sense qualities.
Sensory-motor processes use many parallel processes and storage registers and are statistical {statistics and sensations}. Because many points contribute to results, narrowing to one distribution and average, resolution can be high.
Synchronizing neuron signals increases intensity by causing simultaneous arrival. Synchronous alpha waves cause arousal {synchronization and arousal}.
Topographic maps can have neuron circuits [Gutkin et al., 2003]. Circuit-flow waves and local patterns can represent objects and sense qualities {circuit flows and sensations}. Vibrations, accelerations, jolts, eddies, vortexes, turbulence, and streamlining, with varying dimension, frequency, phase, and amplitude, can represent sense intensities and qualities. Different senses have different flow patterns.
Intensity is kinetic energy flow per area in flow longitudinal direction.
Liquid flows have lateral-pressure patterns, liquid pools have transverse waves from wind and forces, and moving charges have transverse magnetic fields. Sense-quality information is in two transverse potential energy (not distance) coordinates. Circuit flows have cross-sectional shapes, like random stereograms hold stereoscopic patterns.
Reticular-formation input starts and sustains circuit flows. Topographic-map circuit elements control, analyze, and modulate flows, using stimuli, feedback, feedforward, or hormones.
Sense qualities are topographic-map local neuron-activity patterns [Schiffman, 2000] {neuron-array output ratios and sensations}.
Topographic maps have variable-size three-dimensional registers that hold objects with sense qualities {registers and sensations}. Registers work together to represent motions.
Topographic-map neurons can be Off, On, or in between, like a black-and-white TV screen {topographic-map displays and sensations}. Topographic-map neuron activities can make geometric patterns, such as lines, circles, and ellipsoids. Changing neuron activities can make movements, flows, vibrations, orbits, spins, and waves.
1-Consciousness-Speculations-Sensation-Biology
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Date Modified: 2022.0225